Leaders in the pandemic: Contributions to the literature on leadership in organizations in extreme contexts

Braga, Beatriz M. B.; Santos, Vanessa M.

doi:10.1590/1678-6971/eRAMD230072.en

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Special Issue • RAM, Rev. Adm. Mackenzie 24 (6) • 2023 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-6971/eRAMD230072.en copy

Leaders in the pandemic: Contributions to the literature on leadership in organizations in extreme contexts

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

Purpose:

The Covid-19 pandemic triggered a crisis and required measures such as social distancing that have challenged the effectiveness of leadership theories and led some authors to suggest that the practice and theory of leadership are now standing at a crossroads. As the pandemic’s critical phase subsides and in-person activities gradually resume, this study seeks to understand how leaders faced the Covid-19 crisis and the results achieved for organizations and people.

Originality/value:

This work proposes a theoretical model to contribute to the literature about leadership in extreme events. We expand the model by Hannah et al. (2009)Hannah, S. T., Uhl-Bien, M., Avolio, B. J., & Cavarretta, F. L. (2009). A framework for examining leadership in extreme contexts. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(6), 897-919. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.09.006
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.09... to cover elements not yet studied, considering a global, long-duration, and extreme context for which there was no previous training.

Design/methodology/approach:

This is a theoretical article based on the model of Hannah et al. (2009)Hannah, S. T., Uhl-Bien, M., Avolio, B. J., & Cavarretta, F. L. (2009). A framework for examining leadership in extreme contexts. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(6), 897-919. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.09.006
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.09... on leadership in extreme events. The study proposes a model for leadership in extreme events by examining empirical articles on leadership during the pandemic from March 2020 to December 2022.

Findings:

Several leadership styles were adopted during the pandemic. However, almost all converged on mitigating the pandemic’s impact on employees, especially their emotional and psychological well-being, which was significantly affected by the threats posed by Covid-19. The study found that leaders may amplify adverse effects when communication is not clear and transparent and when business needs are priori-tized over the needs of employees.

Keywords
leadership; Covid-19; pandemic; leadership theories; leadership in extreme events

Authors	Location	Industry/Sector	Methodological approach and respondents
^* * Type 1. Garretsen et al. (2022)	48 countries	Profit and non-profit organizations	Quantitative research: 27,000 managers from 619 organizations in 48 countries and 32 industries
Gray et al. (2023)	United States	University and professionals (nurses and engineers)	Qualitative: online research with 571 respondents Quantitative: research with 401 licensed respondents
Hadjielias et al. (2022)Hadjielias, E., Christofi, M., & Tarba, S. (2022). Contextualizing small business resilience during the Covid-19 pandemic: Evidence from small business owner-managers. Small Business Economics, 59(4), 1351-1380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-021-00588-0 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-021-00588...	Cyprus	Small companies	Qualitative: longitudinal study (two sessions) with 35 small business owner-managers
Howe-Walsh et al. (2022)	Nigeria	SME hotels	Qualitative: 42 semi-structured interviews with SME hotel owners, self-initiated expatriate talent, and local workers in Nigerian hotels
^* * Type 1. Kloutsiniotis et al. (2022)	Greece	Hotels (four or five stars)	Quantitative: online research with 459 Greek “customer-contact employees”
^* * Type 1. Krause et al. (2022)	United States	US public firms	Quantitative: online research with 120 directors of US public firms
^* * Type 1. Lee et al. (2022)	South Korea	Service industry: retail stores, banking and financial services, restaurants, and hospitality/tourism	Quantitative: research with 135 frontline service employees in two stages
^* * Type 1. Liu et al. (2022)	United States	Higher education institutions	Qualitative: 55 in-depth interviews with leaders of 30 HEI
Matthews et al. (2022)Matthews, R. A., Wayne, J. H., Smith, C., Casper, W. J., Wang, Y. R., & Streit, J. (2022). Resign or carry-on? District and principal leadership as drivers of change in teacher turnover intentions during the Covid-19 crisis: A latent growth model examination. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 95(3), 687-717. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12397 https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12397...	United States	Education	Quantitative: online research (nine waves of data) with 617 K-12 teachers
^* * Type 1. Nguyen et al. (2022)	Vietnam	Employees who worked during the pandemic	Quantitative: survey with 281 respondents
^* * Type 1. Ramaswamy et al. (2022)	India	Healthcare	Quantitative: research with 415 nurses
^* * Type 1. Ramli et al. (2023)	United Kingdom	High-growth firms in the digital, advanced manufacturing, green industries, and business service sectors	Qualitative: 173 longitudinal interviews with 57 entrepreneurs of high-growth firms during the Covid-19 crisis
^* * Type 1. Ruiz-Palomino et al. (2022)	Spain	Hospitality (hotels)	Quantitative: online research with 205 hotel employees
^* * Type 1. Tuan (2022)	Vietnam	Manufacturing	Quantitative: longitudinal research with three waves of data, with 418 salespersons from 36 manufacturing firms
Wang et al. (2022)Wang, L., Chen, X. P., & Yin, J. (2022). Leading via virtual communication: A longitudinal field experiment on work team creativity in an extreme context. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 1-37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-022-09846-5 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-022-09846...	China	Pre-school education	Quantitative: longitudinal field experiment with 251 education employees in 12 schools in eight cities and six provinces
Yeo (2021)Yeo, R. K. (2021). Know thyself: Leading through the core of you in times of turbulence. Organizational Dynamics, 50(4), 100800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2020.100800 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2020.10...	No information	Multinational company	Qualitative: data collection through interviews, observation, and participation based on direct interaction with leaders and employees

Leadership theories	Leader characteristics	Impacts
Directive (Garretsen et al., 2022; Krause et al., 2022Krause, R., Withers, M. C., & Waller, M. J. (2022). Leading the board in a crisis: Strategy and performance implications of board chair directive leadership. Journal of Management, 01492063221121584. https://doi.org/10.1177/01492063221121584 https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206322112158... )	Directive leadership was observed more often at the beginning of the pandemic, transitioning to more participatory practices with time.	Leads to better strategic planning to face the pandemic.
Ethical (Lee et al., 2022Lee, S. H., Hur, W. M., & Shin, Y. (2022). Struggling to stay engaged during adversity: A daily investigation of frontline service employees’ job insecurity and the moderating role of ethical leader behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 184(1), 281-295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-022-05140-y https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-022-05140... ; Liu et al., 2022Liu, B. F., Shi, D., Lim, J. R., Islam, K., Edwards, A. L., & Seeger, M. (2022). When crises hit home: How US higher education leaders navigate values during uncertain times. Journal of Business Ethics, 179(2), 353-368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04820-5 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04820... )	Promotes reciprocal communication and offers an example of conduct. It encompasses attention and care for others. The theory is concerned with accuracy, transparency, fairness, and accountability. Security is a priority.	Reduces the perception of insecurity and disengagement. It helps to face the context volatility.
Transformational (Nguyen et al., 2022Nguyen, T. M., Malik, A., & Budhwar, P. (2022). Knowledge hiding in organi-zational crisis: The moderating role of leadership. Journal of Business Research, 139, 161-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.09.026 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.0... ; Kloutsiniotis et al., 2022Kloutsiniotis, P. V., Mihail, D. M., Mylonas, N., & Pateli, A. (2022). Transformational leadership, HRM practices and burnout during the Covid-19 pandemic: The role of personal stress, anxiety, and workplace loneliness. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 102, 103177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2022.103177 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2022.1031... )	Offers resources and shows the purpose of the work, inspires people; study highlights the essential role of line managers.	Reduces role conflict, job insecurity, and cynicism; reduces stress and anxiety about financial problems, isolation effects, and burnout.
Resonant (Ramaswamy et al., 2022Ramaswamy, M., Viswanathan, R., Kaniyarkuzhi, B. K., & Neeliyadath, S. (2022). The moderating role of resonant leadership and workplace spiritua-lity on the relationship between psychological distress and organizational commitment. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 34(4), 855-877. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.2143273 https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2022.21... )	Empowers team members by promoting confidence in performance, compassion, and empathy.	Promotes positive emotions, increases self-efficacy, resilience, sense of belonging and commitment, and reduces anxiety and depression.
Emotional (Ramli et al., 2023Ramli, K., Spigel, B., Williams, N., Mawson, S., & Jack, S. (2023). Managing through a crisis: Emotional leadership strategies of high-growth entrepreneurs during the Covid-19 pandemic. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 35(1-2), 24-48. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2022.2143905 https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2022.21... )	Cares about mental and economic well-being and prioritizes supporting employees’ mental and physical well-being. Its strategic approach prioritizes the company’s financial security, cutting costs and ensuring positive cash flow.	Maximizes organizational resilience (the ability of workers to respond to sudden changes brought about by a crisis), avoids burnout, and maintains mental well-being.
Servant (Ruiz-Palomino et al., 2022Ruiz-Palomino, P., Yáñez-Araque, B., Jiménez-Estévez, P., & Gutiérrez-Broncano, S. (2022). Can servant leadership prevent hotel employee depression during the Covid-19 pandemic? A mediating and multigroup analysis. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 174, 121192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121192 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.... )	Is concerned and willing to sacrifice for others. Promotes confidence rather than insecurity and fosters honesty. It is a leadership moved by a higher calling, focusing on people’s development. The study highlights the crucial role of the immediate superior.	Increases individual social capital that reduces depression and contributes to adaptation.
LMX (Tuan, 2022Tuan, L. T. (2022). Leader crisis communication and salesperson resilience in face of the Covid-19: The roles of positive stress mindset, core beliefs challenge, and family strain. Industrial Marketing Management, 102, 488-502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2021.12.006 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2021... )	Establishes high-quality relationships with subordinates. Communicates clearly and transparently the policies related to the crisis. Develops a close connection with the followers and support their work.	More resilience and a positive mindset when it comes to stress. It facilitates the development of other resources such as perseverance, constructive thinking, flexibility, and adaptability to the crisis.

Authors	Leader characteristics	Impacts
Gray et al. (2023)Gray, C. E., Spector, P. E., Wells, J. E., Bianchi, S. R., Ocana-Dominguez, C., Stringer, C., Sarmiento, J., & Butler, T. (2023). How can organizational leaders help? Examining the effectiveness of leaders’ support during a crisis. Journal of Business and Psychology, 38(1), 215-237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-022-09810-6 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-022-09810...	Examines the effectiveness of leaders’ support during a crisis on issues related to autonomy, changes, communication, personal resources, security, time, tone, work equipment, and workload.	When practices were useless, there was an increase in stress and negative tension.
Hadjielias et al. (2022)	Entrepreneurs’ resilience type 1: ability to bounce back after business disruption; and type 2: optimists that businesses remain partially open.	Greater collectivism and greater flexibility. Type 1: alert to new opportunities and problems, and type 2: greater trust in networking and family.
Howe-Walsh et al. (2022)Howe-Walsh, L., Kirk, S., & Oruh, E. (2022). Are people the greatest asset: Talent management in SME hotels in Nigeria during the Covid-19 crisis. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 35(8), 2708-2727. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-03-2022-0321 https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-03-2022-03...	The practice of the pre-pandemic leadership of hiring expatriate labor (self-initiated) was inefficient during the pandemic as they returned to their countries, and the hotels were left without qualified local labor.	The leader understood that it would need to train local labor for crises.
Matthews et al. (2022)	Rational decision-making and safety communication as clear, initial, evidence-based actions.	Increased work-life balance and a decrease in turnover intentions over the semester.
Wang et al. (2022)Wang, L., Chen, X. P., & Yin, J. (2022). Leading via virtual communication: A longitudinal field experiment on work team creativity in an extreme context. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 1-37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-022-09846-5 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-022-09846...	Leadership through virtual communication (rich communication as opposed to lean communication) to drive teamwork.	Helps to mitigate the negative impacts of rigorous government responses to the pandemic and helps leaders deal with daily anxiety by facilitating information, daily ideation, and the improvement of the team’s creative solution.
Yeo (2021)Yeo, R. K. (2021). Know thyself: Leading through the core of you in times of turbulence. Organizational Dynamics, 50(4), 100800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2020.100800 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2020.10...	Based on the metaphor of human anatomy, investigation of how leaders reacted to the pandemic.	Leaders turned to their inner core and values to act compassionately instead of just rational decision-making. Leaders gained the courage to admit their vulnerability and see the value in others. They could help with employee problems more effectively.

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[1] Authors’ notes

Beatriz M. B. Braga is now an associate professor at the School of Business Administration of São Paulo of Getulio Vargas Foundation (Fundação Getulio Vargas - FGV); Vanessa M. Santos is now a Ph.D. student at the School of Business Administration of São Paulo of FGV.