ANALYSIS OF THE MAIN TOURISM PUBLIC POLICIES IN MOZAMBIQUE

ANÁLISE DAS PRINCIPAIS POLÍTICAS PÚBLICAS DE TURISMO EM MOÇAMBIQUE

ANÁLISIS DE LAS PRINCIPALES POLÍTICAS PÚBLICAS TURÍSTICAS EN MOZAMBIQUE

Abstract

The main aim of this research is to identify the main tourism public policies in Mozambique and to reflect on their role and applicability in reducing poverty in vulnerable communities, essentially to understand how they are implemented and what their level of applicability is. Methodologically, bibliographical and documentary research was applied; this is qualitative research and for data analysis we opted for content analysis to encompass the content presented in the various sources that represent tourism public policies and their role in alleviating poverty and promoting development. The main public policies analyzed were the Tourism Law, Tourism Policy and the Strategic Plan for Tourism Development (1st and 2nd). Regarding the policies consulted, it can be said that Mozambique has good public policies and the main ones adopt tourism as a factor in alleviating poverty and promoting development, but there is little empirical evidence that these objectives are being implemented on a large scale and effectively, as the participatory process and involvement of local communities in their design and implementation leaves something to be desired. There are also questions about the quality of jobs in the sector and their sustainability, given that they are very seasonal and often not legally linked to their employers.

Keywords:
Tourism Public Policies; Poverty Alleviating and Development Promotion; Local Community

Resumo

O principal objetivo desta pesquisa é levantar as principais políticas públicas do turismo em Moçambique e refletir sobre o seu papel e aplicabilidade na redução da pobreza das comunidades vulneráveis, visa essencialmente perceber como são implementadas e qual é o nível de aplicabilidade. Metodologicamente, foi aplicada a pesquisa bibliográfica e documental; trata-se de uma pesquisa qualitativa e para a análise dos dados optou-se pela análise do conteúdo para abarcar os conteúdos apresentados nas diversas fontes que representam as políticas públicas do turismo e o seu papel no alívio da pobreza e promoção do desenvolvimento. Do levantamento feito, foram apuradas as principais políticas públicas, e delas destacam-se a Lei do turismo, política do turismo e o Plano estratégico para o desenvolvimento do turismo (1o e 2o). Sobre as políticas consultadas, diga-se que Moçambique tem boas políticas públicas e das principais adotam-no como fator de alívio da pobreza e promoção do desenvolvimento, todavia há poucas evidências empíricas de que estes objetivos estejam sendo implementadas em grande escala e com eficácia, pois o processo participativo e envolvimento das comunidades locais na sua concepção e implementação deixa a desejar. Questiona-se igualmente, a qualidade dos empregos do setor bem como a sua sustentabilidade, uma vez que são empregos bastante sazonais e muitas das vezes sem vínculo legal com os empregadores.

Palavras-chave:
Políticas Públicas do Turismo; Alívio da Pobreza e Promoção do Desenvolvimento; Comunidade Local.

Resumen

El principal objetivo de esta investigación es identificar las principales políticas públicas de turismo en Mozambique y reflexionar sobre su papel y aplicabilidad en la reducción de la pobreza en comunidades vulnerables, esencialmente pretende entender cómo se implementan y cuál es el nivel de aplicabilidad. Metodológicamente se aplicó la investigación bibliográfica y documental; esta es una investigación cualitativa y para el análisis de datos optamos por el análisis de contenido para abarcar el contenido presentado en las diversas fuentes que representan las políticas públicas de turismo y su papel en el alivio de la pobreza y la promoción del desarrollo. A partir del relevamiento realizado se identificaron las principales políticas públicas, entre ellas la Ley de Turismo, la política turística y el Plan Estratégico para el desarrollo del turismo (1° y 2°). Respecto a las políticas consultadas cabe decir que Mozambique cuenta con buenas políticas públicas y los principales la adoptan como un factor para aliviar la pobreza y promover el desarrollo, sin embargo hay poca evidencia empírica de que estos objetivos se estén implementando a gran escala y de manera efectiva. ya que el proceso participativo y la participación de las comunidades locales en su diseño e implementación deja mucho que desear. También se cuestiona la calidad de los empleos en el sector, así como su sostenibilidad, ya que son empleos muy estacionales y muchas veces no tienen vínculo legal con los empleadores.

Palabras-clave:
Políticas Públicas de Turismo; Aliviar la Pobreza y Promover el Desarrollo; Comunidad Local

INTRODUCTION

Well-defined policies, regulations and strategies, provide the basis for the development of sustainable tourism, the reduction of poverty on a large scale, the protection of natural resources and ways of life and the promotion of socio-economic development. According to the UNDP1(2023), poverty reduction is at the top of the global political agenda and, due to its importance, it appears at the top of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs, also known as the Global Goals, were adopted by the member countries of the United Nations, of which Mozambique is a part, in 2015 as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity.

Guided by the perception of the relationship between tourism and its vaunted ability to contribute to poverty alleviation and the promotion of development, the paper seeks to raise questions and make contributions to the issue in Mozambique. This is because it is believed that, under certain conditions, tourism can benefit the poor and, through the conception of strategic actions, it is possible to design public policies aimed at this underprivileged section of the population. This conviction remains, although there is a realisation that economic growth is generally defined as the main goal of tourism development, relegating poverty alleviation to the background, assuming it to be a natural result of regional economic growth (ASHLEY et al., 2000; DELOITTE et al., 1999).

In this research, in contrast to what was mentioned in the paragraph above, we focus on the position that growth does not mean development, we believe in tourism that can contribute to a development that is based more on the human being as the subject and not the object of development, not on reductionist primitivism, but on breaking with the most perverse part of capitalism, taking the path of meeting human needs and not just surpluses and profit (MAX-NEEF, 2012). This is because human needs must be seen as existential (being, having, doing and being) and axiological (subsistence, protection, affection, understanding, participation, leisure, creation, identity, freedom and spirituality). And that, by trying to satisfy them, the capacities of the (neediest) people are expanded so that they can reach the most advanced levels of freedom to make their own choices in life (SEN, 2000; MAX-NEEF, 1998; 2012).

This position is justified because, to a certain extent, it is a capitalist project aimed at the elites and almost always excluding and segregating the poor. Thus, the hegemonic discourse of governments that the economic growth of tourism equals socio-economic development, and that jobs and income "flow" from it, raising the living conditions of the population, is generally not legitimised, and an example of this are the experiences that contradict this discourse, such as community tourism and locally-based tourism.

In general terms, we want to emphasise that legislators often pay considerable attention to the expansion of the tourism sector, but much less to the real issue, i.e. understanding the extent to which tourism development contributes in practice to poverty reduction (CHRISTIE, 2002). Consequently, the impact of tourism on poverty reduction has been indirect and therefore not as phenomenal and natural as is generally thought.

The choice of this topic is due to the lack of research analyzing the public policies applied in this area (tourism), which is so young in Mozambique, since Mozambique does not have a long history of tourism planning (the country has only been independent for 48 years and with 16 years of civil war, the Ministry of Tourism was only created in 2000). In addition to this aspect, according to Domingos (2012), public policies in Mozambique do not participate properly in the implementation of tourism development programs due to the conservative and centralized way in which they are formulated; which raises the question of the real usefulness of "so many" laws, regulations, directives and policies aimed at tourism - either directly or across the board - in alleviating poverty and promoting development in Mozambique's tourist destinations, since the content of these policies may not reflect what the community (indigenous communities) really wants.

To this end, we surveyed the main public policies related to tourism since its socio-economic importance became known (in 2000) and catalogued as a commercial activity in Mozambique. As background, we briefly reflected on the relationship between public tourism policies, poverty reduction and the promotion of development. But we want to assure you that this research itself is not the end, it is the beginning and we believe that it can contribute and stimulate other researchers in the aggregation of theory in the area of tourism planning and public policy design, specifically in the solution of problems related to poverty, social injustice, dependency, vulnerability and the socio-economic integration of local communities in tourist destinations in general and in Mozambique in particular.

It is also hoped that the research will encourage municipal, provincial and national authorities to take variables such as poverty, well-being, quality of life, social integration, self-dependence and freedom (economic, political, safety and security, for example) of the most disadvantaged communities in Mozambican tourist destinations as an agenda item for all those involved in tourism management. And, therefore, seek to achieve the desired development through a network of public policies and governance, translated into concrete and strategic actions based on tourism and not just the conception of policies without practical applicability.

METHODS

This article used bibliographical research, which consisted of searching for information in books, scientific articles (especially Reserchgate and Scielo-Brasil), theses and dissertations from various scientific repositories; documentary research was used because, according to Dencker (1998) and Gil (2002), it is one of the most suitable for research that focuses on historical data. We are referring to the investigation of the main public policies related to tourism in Mozambique (strategic plan for tourism development, tourism policy and Mozambique's tourism law, for example) practically since Mozambique's national independence in 1975. This is qualitative research in terms of its approach, as it aims to understand the public tourism policies that are at the forefront of promoting development and reducing poverty in the most vulnerable communities, as well as to understand how this process happens in practice, without necessarily quantifying them.

Bardin (2011) argues that content analysis is a methodological technique that can be used in a variety of discourses and all forms of communication, regardless of the nature of the medium. The researcher seeks to understand the characteristics, structures or models behind the message fragments, with the aim of enriching the reading and overcoming uncertainties, extracting the content behind the analyzed message. The technique involves three phases: pre-analysis, exploration of the material and treatment of the results - inference and interpretation. For the current research, in the pre-analysis, we used the technique of "floating" reading, i.e., a first contact with the documents, which facilitated the selection of those that make up public tourism policies; they were subjected to analysis and the development of indicators that guided the interpretation and formal preparation of the material.

In the second phase, the exploration of the material, we defined the variables to be analyzed within the public policies, according to their relevance and pertinence - in accordance with the rules of the technique - namely poverty, development and tourism. In the third phase of the process, called treatment of the results - inference and interpretation, we interpreted the contents of public tourism policies leading to the alleviation of poverty and the promotion of development in Mozambique, with the need to extract content behind a message that appears to be obvious, but which, for the Mozambican reality, needs some in-depth study, always combining, comparing and paralleling the theory consulted throughout the bibliographical research.

THEORICAL BACKGROUND

A LOOK AT TOURISM GOVERNANCE

Governance in tourism is a term that relates to policies, policy formulation, tourism planning and destination management. As different as these terms are, when it comes to tourism policy and planning, there is always a political debate about the agenda, the problems, those involved and affected, and the alternative actions being taken to solve these problems, because governance includes all these terms in its structure (BRAMWELL and LANE, 2011).

In the same context, according to Coutinho and Nóbrega (2019), the literature emphasizes that the term governance in tourism is associated with the way of governing, which implies a re-dimensioning of command and control by the state, which begins to include new actors in the decision-making process, through new structures, mechanisms and decision-making procedures for the planning and operation of the tourism phenomenon. It is in this vein that it is said that new forms of tourism governance can include layers of official government, networks of actors beyond government, local communities and also markets (BRAMWELL and LANE, 2011).

These new governmental and non-governmental actors co-operate to ensure the achievement of collective objectives and goals or the attainment of the desired social order. It is therefore reasonable to assume that governance is now a new way of conducting the processes of innovation, strengthening and transforming tourism dynamics in a given area, bringing together public and private actors in order to make collective decisions (VELASCO, 2013).

It is along these lines that Coutinho and Nóbrega (2019) agree in the literature (URANO, SIQUEIRA and NÓBREGA, 2016; VELASCO, 2010; TRETIN, 2016; COUTINHO, 2015; FLEURY, 2002) that co-operation is the most perfect way to achieve success in a given public policy, avoiding the separatist view of the approaches between politics and administration, commonly held by traditional administration researchers. It is in the depths of the above thought that Coutinho and Nóbrega (2019) point out that theoretical discussions reveal the existence of a traditional model that conflicts with what theory advocates is beneficial for the context of new management structures that are drawn in figure 1 below.

Figure 1
Institutional challenges for tourism governance. Source: Coutinho and Nóbrega, (2019, p. 62)

Therefore, figure 1 shows a new paradigm of governance in tourism, based on collectivity, coordination, participation, channeling of resources and objectivity in tourism (COUTINHO and NÓBREGA, 2019, p. 62). It is with this in mind that Tretin (2016), OECD (2013) and Seki (2013) advocate that the state adopt a more coordinating role to guide actions which, according to various studies, has proven to be more efficient in tourist destinations.

To fill this gap, it is essentially necessary to produce policies that favor an adapted model of local participation, which should be based on developing an in-depth understanding of the participatory behaviors of the poor at grassroots level, to pursue a bottom-up approach in research and public policy formulation, adopted in order to replace or complement the traditional top-down approach (ALTIERI and MASERA, 1993; MURRAY and GREER, 1992, as cited in ZHAO and RITCHIE, 2008).

Some of the more concrete methods for fostering local participation in impoverished destinations, have also been recommended, such as decentralization of the public administration system, fundamental changes in the socio-political, legal and economic structure, involvement of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and donor agencies, collaboration and cooperation of international and multinational tour operators and dissolving cultural barriers (TOSUN, 2000; 2006).

However, a challenge for implementing these methods is that they broadly involve stakeholder groups, whose interests in local participation may even conflict with each other. In addition, some of the methods require transformation of the political system and culture, as already mentioned in the previous paragraph, (e.g., dissolving cultural barriers, party-political impartiality), which obviously goes beyond the scope of tourism and is less likely to be realized in the short term (ZHAO and RITCHIE, 2008).

To finalize this point, according to Coutinho, Azevedo and Nóbrega (2020) and as mentioned above, the new approaches to development related to tourism demand a vision of the local community as a transforming agent that, by working together with its peers, can chart paths for tourism development. This position is defended by Max-Neef (2012) and Amartya Sen (2000), who emphasize that encouraging the self-dependence of the poor creates a real role for these people in society in different spheres and this leads to development processes in which the satisfaction of needs, social justice, freedom and personal development coexist.

TOURISM PUBLIC POLICY

Talking about public policies requires first of all understanding some of the theoretical constructions made on this subject. Souza (2006) provides some reflections based on four major theorists in the field of public policy, namely H. Laswell, H. Simon, C. Lindblom and D. Easton. Laswell, H. Simon, C. Lindblom and D. Easton (see table I).

Table 1
Main theoretical precursors in the area of public policies. Source: Souza (2006) - adaptation

Author	Elements introduced by theoreticians
H. Laswell	Policy analysis - as a way of reconciling scientific/academic knowledge with the empirical production of governments, establishing dialogue between social scientists, interest groups and governments.
H. Simon	Policy makers - the rationality of decision makers is limited by problems such as incomplete information, decision time, self-interest of decision makers, etc., but to minimize problems a structure of rules and incentives must be created, therefore seeking desired results and minimizing self-interest.
C. Lindblom	This author questions the rationalism of Laswell and Simon - other variables must be analyzed in the formulation and analysis of public policies, namely die role of elections, bureaucracies, parties and interest groups.
D. Easton	Public policy is a system - it has a relationship with formulation, results and the environment. In other words, public policies receive inputs from parties, the media and interest groups that directly influence their results and effects.

Table 2
Four public policy formats. Source: Souza (2006) - adaptation

Form/type	Meaning
Distributive policies	These are the decisions taken by the government that do not consider the issue of limited resources, generating impacts that are more individual than collective, by favoring social groups or regions to the detriment of the whole.
Regulatory policies	Those most visible to the public, involving bureaucracy, politicians and interest groups.
Redistributive policies	They affect a greater number of people and impose concrete, short-term losses on certain social groups as well as uncertain futures, as is the case with universal social policies, the tax system and social security.
Constitutive policies	Those who deal with procedures.

Having said this, it is clear that there is no universal definition, let alone the best one, of what public policy is. According to Azevedo et al. (2013, p. 20) "politics refers to life in the polis, that is, life in common, the rules for organizing this life, the community's objectives and decisions on all these points". The same authors emphasize that to think about politics is to take care of the various problems inherent in the desires of the community.

Lynn (1980) defines them as a specific set of government actions that will produce specific effects. For Peters (1986), public policy is the sum of government activities, acting directly or through delegation, which influence the lives of citizens. For Dias (2003, p. 121), public policies are seen as "a set of actions carried out by the state as a subject, aimed at meeting the needs of society as a whole".

Souza (2006) states that although there are different definitions, what prevails is that public policies end up taking a more holistic view, where the whole is more important than the sum of the parts; and that individuals, institutions, interactions, ideologies and interests count, even if there are differences in the relative importance of these factors.

In this way, we can look at public policy as a field of knowledge that seeks, at the same time, to "put the government into action" and/or analyze this action (independent variable) and, when necessary, propose changes to the course of these actions (dependent variable). The formulation of public policies is the stage at which democratic governments translate their electoral purposes and platforms into programs and actions that will produce results or changes in the real world (SOUZA, 2006, p. 26).

In accordance with Souza (2006), public policies can take four forms, as can be seen in the table below.

In the field of tourism, the line of research in planning and policy is relatively new, having developed significantly since the turn of the century to reinforce the notion that tourism planning and policy are a result of the reflections, ideas, actions, collusions and collaborations of various actors, agencies and institutions (DREDGE and JENKINS, 2011), and can be defined as,

“a set of regulations, rules, guidelines, directives, objectives and development and promotion strategies that provides a framework within which the collective and individual decisions directly affecting tourism development and the daily activities in a destination” (Goeldner, Ritchie and MCIntosh, 2002, p. 294).

The “gap” is the need for greater ideological depth in its conception and implementation, to guarantee rights for everyone involved in the tourism production chain (HALL, 2004; NÓBREGA, 2012), since it is the large companies that benefit from public policies, as it is common for the State to formulate policies to meet the needs of the production sector to the detriment of other sectors. This is why Arretche (1995, p. 33 as cited in Azevedo, et al. 2013) argues that the institutional mechanisms within which policies are formulated and sustained politically are essential for understanding the form of the policies themselves because a given policy is the result of the form of action of groups interested in implementing it, within a context whose rules of operation are specific.

And, building on the idea discussed in this article about governance, which argues that public policies go beyond government actions, Schneider (2005, p. 37) uses the term public policy networks to suggest the idea that the problematization, deliberation, implementation and political processing of a public problem "is no longer the exclusive business of an integrated governmental and administrative hierarchy, but is found in networks in which both public and private organizations are involved".

What is important, and what prevails in the midst of this discussion, is the imperative of preparing public tourism policies conducive to the development of tourism that takes place in an appropriate manner, so that it allows the local community to participate in its decisions, not just through "inclusion programs" and "assistance", but as an actor of recognized and indispensable esteem in this process.

According to Hall (2001), it is imperative that the state incorporates certain roles that enhance its performance as a political manager, namely: a) Coordinator (with the aim of bringing together public organizations to operate towards a common goal); b) Planner (foreseeing scenarios and putting policy into action), c) Legislator (on labor issues, tendering), d) Entrepreneur (owner and manager of enterprises); e) Encourager (through financial stimuli for development, sponsoring research, marketing campaigns, etc.).

Public policy itself must incorporate the following adjectives in order to achieve greater effectiveness in the tangibility of its goals: a) dynamism (paying attention to external and internal transformations); b) flexibility (information emerges all the time that changes the whole scenario); c) participation (involvement of all subjects and segments); d) integration (between public tourism bodies and other sectors); e) harmony (balance in interventions, thus helping to verify the real possibilities and limits for the desired development) (SOLHA, 2006).

Therefore, according to Azevedo et al. (2013), the government and its policies have the purpose of preparing, executing and monitoring actions in line with society's wishes. If this doesn't happen, at least it should. Local, less elite communities are almost always left out of the process of drawing up the most important policies, which often have a direct impact on socio-economic development. It is important to realize in this contestation, in the view of authors Coutinho, Azevedo and Nóbrega (2020), that there is no model for starting actions (top-down or bottom-up). Processes start from where they can or want to, seeking to solve problems, i.e., the people who make up the most diverse networks cannot wait for the other to materialize actions that have been thought up together and are in everyone's interests. As a network, its actors can and must organize themselves to make it happen. However, horizontality is the desired format since they must get involved and be involved in the participation process.

From the perspective of Coutinho, Azevedo and Nóbrega (2020), the management of policy networks requires continuous and stable decision-making processes. However, according to Fleury (2005); Wan and Bramwell (2015), there are some constraints on this process: these actors act according to their perceptions of other actors and expectations of their behavior.

CASE STUDY

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF TOURISM IN MOZAMBIQUE

The Republic of Mozambique is located on the east coast of southern Africa and covers an area of 801,590 km2. It is crossed by the Tropic of Capricorn and is bordered to the north by Tanzania, to the west by Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, and to the south-west and south by South Africa and Swaziland. The country's 2,515 kilometers of coastline are bathed by the Indian Ocean and it faces the island of Madagascar, from which it is separated by the Mozambique Channel (FERRÃO, 2002; MARRUPI, 2007).

From the point of view of history, tourism in Mozambique predates independence (PEDTM, 2004 and 2015; HUB, 2002; FIAS, 2006; AZEVEDO, 2014), having been one of the first tourist destinations in southern Africa. International arrivals were interrupted due to the armed conflicts of the national liberation war against colonialism (which ended in 1975) and the civil war (between the government forces led by the FRELIMO2 party and the RENAMO3 forces), which lasted 16 years and ended with the signing of the general peace agreement in 1992, which relaunched Mozambique's tourism image to the world, increasing the number of tourists visiting the country.

Within this general characterization of the country, in the socio-economic field - a fundamental part of understanding the current state of Mozambique's development - we based ourselves on the IMF ranking (2023), which used the criterion of GDP per capita in purchasing power parity to measure the wealth of nations, and found that Mozambique is the sixth poorest country in the world (with a GDP per capita of 1556 dollars) in 2023.

The Human Development Index (HDI) basically measures longevity, income and education through statistical indicators linked to the socio-economic situation, i.e., a person's expectation of living a long and healthy life, access to knowledge and a decent standard of living. In this sense, we can see that Mozambique ranks 185th out of 189 countries, having fallen three places from 2020 to 2021 with an HDI of 0.466 in 2021.

Average life expectancy is 59.3 years, down from 60.9 years in 2020, and average schooling is around 3.2 years. There are 289 maternal deaths per 100,000 births, and for every 1,000 live births, 148.6 mothers were aged between 15 and 19. For every 10,000 people, there are 0.8 doctors. On the other hand, only 8 per cent of rural populations have access to electricity (UNDP, 2020). Thus, the country's HDI indicators denote a context of marked social vulnerability, stigmatized by extreme poverty and profound social inequality.

Furthermore, according to UNDP (2022) in Mozambique, multidimensional poverty - another aspect of extreme importance in this article - manifests itself quite significantly, since around half of the population (46%) lives "tortured" by severe multidimensional poverty, characterized by a very high level of deprivation. Even more worrying is the fact that nearly 15 per cent of the population is vulnerable to multidimensional poverty, or in other words, in the future, depending on socio-economic dynamics, could join the group of people living in severe multidimensional poverty. Approximately 65 per cent of the population lives below the poverty line on a daily basis on around USD 2 a day, and around 35 per cent of the population lives below the desired level of education; 50 per cent lives below a standard of living that provides them with freedom and comfort; and around 20 per cent of the population is totally deprived of medical services.

In order to benefit from tourism as a strategic sector in socio-economic development, the Mozambican government, a government embedded in the neoliberal paradigm, characterized by international and regional convergences that see tourism as a great potential for the development of world economies, asked the WTO to jointly formulate a national tourism development strategy. As a result, in 1993, the WTO produced the first strategic development plan (1993-1997), a document that served as the basis for drawing up Mozambique's national tourism policy (MAXLHAIEIE, 2021).

In addition to the design of the aforementioned document, the Mozambican government, in another document called Mozambique's Development Strategy (2015-2035), highlighted tourism as a priority area, emphasizing that "the process of structural transformation of the economy should focus on priority areas of development, which are guided by specific strategies, namely for the agricultural and fishing sectors, manufacturing industry, extractive industry and the tourism industry" (END, 2014). In this context, Table 3 shows, in simplified form, the potential for tourism in each region of Mozambique.

Table 3
Tourism potential by region in Mozambique - Summary. Source: PEDTM (2004 and 2015) - Adaptation.

Regions of the country	Provinces	Key tourist products
South region	Maputo Province Maputo City Inhambane Gaza	1. Vast coast with warm waters. 2. Exceptional quality of marine resources for diving. 3. Marine sports and fishing. 4. Diversified Parks and Reserves, transfrontier conservation areas, biological reserves and ecological parks. 5. Cosmopolitan and cultural environment of Maputo and Inhambane. 6. Historical-cultural heritage.
Central region	Sofala Manica Tete Zambézia	1. Jungle area with significant biodiversity and potential for-hunting. 2. Safaris. 3. Birdwatching. 4. Lake and river tourism. 5. Ecotourism and adventure tourism. 6. Parks and reserves.
North region	Cabo Delegado Nampula Niassa	1. Tropical beaches. 2. Historical and cultural heritage. 3. Primitive jungle. 4. Parks, reserves, limiting grounds, environmental protection areas.

From the above table and the points made by PEDTM (2004) and FIAS (2006), it can be seen that Mozambique has vast and diverse potential, and has played a key role in attracting visitors from the city of Maputo to the fascinating Mozambique Island (a World Cultural Heritage Site). Not forgetting the wildlife in the various conservation areas, the rich gastronomy (Arab, Indian, Portuguese and African), water sports and diving, the marine and terrestrial “Big Five” , among many other examples, which reveal the potential of this territory. (INATUR, 2014 as cited in BENJAMIM, 2016).

MOZAMBIQUE'S MAIN TOURISM PUBLIC POLICIES

With regard to the main tourism public policies in Mozambique and their role in reducing poverty and promoting development, it should be noted that since the date of the proclamation of Mozambique’s national independence in 1975, the government has been concerned about the country's economic development, particularly tourism. To this end, many projects, programs, laws, decrees and other public instruments have been drawn up and published at local, provincial and national level with the aim of boosting the development of this activity (AZEVEDO, NHANTUMBO and BANZE, 2017).

In Table 4 we intend to systematise over time a set of plans, policies, laws, strategies and other documents that reflect the tourism public policies applied in Mozambique.

Table 4.1
Mozambique's main tourism and related public policies. Source: Based on multiple sources.

Public policy	Objective	Timeframe
Regulamento de transportes em automóveis decreto 24/1989 de 08 de agosto.	To regulate automobile transportation taking into account the then administrative structure and political, economic and social demands of the People's Republic of Mozambique.	1989
Jogos de diversão social. Lei n. ° 9/1994 de 14/9.	Institutionalize the practice of games with an eminently social character.	1994
Política e estratégia desenvolvimento de florestas e fauna bravia. Resolução n. 0 8/1997 de 1/04.	To generate economic and social benefits for current and future generations; to involve people who depend on forest resources in planning and sustainable use; and to conserve basic resources, including biological diversity.	1997
MOZBIO Project - Safeguarding policies.	To ensure the conservation of biodiversity and natural ecosystems in Transfrontier Conservation Areas (cross-border protected natural areas involving at least two countries) and the promotion of economic growth and development, based on the sustainable use of natural resources in local communities, with particular emphasis on ecotourism.	1997
Decreto Presidencial n.°l/2000, de 17/1.	To extinguish the Ministry of Industry, Commerce and Tourism and creates the Ministry of Tourism	2000
Tourism Policy and Implementation Strategy.	To Identify the general principles and objectives of tourism and the Priority Areas for Intervention and Action in Mozambique.	2003
Lei do Turismo (Tourism Law) n° 4/2004 de 17 de junho	To create the legal framework for the promotion and exercise of tourism activities.	2004
Strategic Plan for Tourism Development in Mozambique (2004-2013).	To set specific priorities, defining products and markets, identifying Priority Areas for Tourism Investment (PATI) and focusing the necessary resources.	2004
Regulamento de alojamento turístico, restauração e bebidas. Decreto n° 40/2005 de 30/8.	To regulate the conditions and procedures for licensing and operating tourist accommodation and catering and beverage activities.	2005
Regulamento das agências de viagem e turismo e profissionais de informação turística. Decreto n° 41/2007 de 30/8	To regulate the licensing and operation of travel and tourism agencies, as well as authorising the exercise of the professional activity of tourist information.	2005
Regulamento do mergulho amador. Decreto n.° 44/2006 de 29/11	To establish rules on the exercise of amateur diving in Mozambican jurisdictional waters.	2006
Regulamento de alojamento turístico, restauração e bebidas e salas de dança Decreto n° 18/2007 de 07/8.	To regulate the conditions and procedures for the licensing and operation of tourist activities as well as the classification system including the regulatory and management body, the register and the information system.	2007
Regulamento de direito de habitação periódica. Decreto n° 39/2007 de 24/8.	To establish the legal regime applicable to the constitution, exercise, transfer and extension of periodic housing rights, as well as defining the rules and procedures for licensing tourist and real estate developments under the periodic housing regime.	2007
Regulamento de transportes turísticos. Decreto n.° 41/2007 de 24/8.	To establish the legal framework applicable to the exercise of tourist transport activity.	2007
Decreto n.° 15/2009 de 4 de abril de 2009	To consign 20% of the revenues collected in National Parks and Reserves to local communities.	2009
Regulamento das zonas de interesse turístico. Decreto n. ° 77/2009 de 15/12.	To establish the legal framework for the declaration of areas of tourist interest (ATI) and to determine their effects, without prejudice to the specific rules laid down in the declaration of each area.	2009

Table 4.2
Mozambique's main tourism and related public policies. Source: Based on multiple sources.

Public policy	Objective	Timeframe
Regulamento da lei de jogos de fortuna ou azar. Decreto n.° 64/2010 de 31/12.	To regulate Law number, I/2010, of February 10, applicable to all undertakings and activities for the development and operation of one or more types of games of chance, as well as, in the applicable matters, to undertakings for the operation of activities providing related and complementary services.	2010
Regulamento de alojamento turístico, restauração e bebidas e salas de dança. Decreto n° 97/2013 de 07/8.	To establish the legal framework for the installation, operation and functioning of tourist enterprises, catering and drinking establishments and dance halls, as well as their classification and registration system.	2013
National Development Strategy -NDS (2015-2035)	Strategy drawn up in 2014 to ensure the inplementation of Agenda 2025, with the aim of raise the living conditions of the population through the structural transformation of the economy and diversification of the productive base. Tourism is one of the priority areas of the END (2015-2035).	2015
Strategic Plan of the National Administration of Conservation Areas (2015-2024)	To guide the efforts dedicated to Biodiversity Conservation through the materialization of the objectives set out in the Constitution of the Republic of Mozambique and in the Conservation Policy and its Implementation Strategy, namely: (i) Institutional Development; (ii) Biodiversity Conservation; (iii) Financial Economic Sustainability and; (iv) Community Development.	2015

Table 4.3
Mozambique's main tourism and related public policies. Source: Based on multiple sources.

Public policy	Objective	Timeframe
Regulamento das agendas de viagem e turismo e profissionais de informação turística aprovado pelo Decreto n.° 53/2015 de 80/12 que revoga o Decreto n.° 41/2005 de 30/8	To conduct the licensing and operation of travel and tourism agencies and the activities of tourist information professionals. To conduct the licensing and operation of travel and tourism agencies and the activities of tourist information professionals.	2015
Strategic Plan for Tourism Development in Mozambique (2016-2025)-PEDTM	To provide the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (MICULTUR) with an implementation plan and strategy for the development of tourism as a key vector for rapid economic growth and job creation during the period 2016 to 2025, in support of the government's Poverty Reduction Action Plan (PARP).	2015
National Sustainable Development Program - PNDS	To respond to the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals by managing a portfolio of projects aimed at promoting sustainable and inclusive rural growth by 2030. Of the eight major goals, four are related to access to fresh or potable water, road construction, access to land and the quality of urban life in rural areas (including tourist areas). It highlights environmental sustainability variables (renewable energies and reducing CO2 emissions) and social sustainability variables (poverty reduction, access to land, drinking water, urban roads and social welfare).	2016
Regulamento de Empreendimentos turísticos, restauração e bebidas e salas de dança de 26 de julho de 2016 (decreto lei n° 49/2016) que revoga que revoga o decreto lei n° 97/2013	To establish the legal framework for the installation, operation and functioning of tourist enterprises, catering and drinking establishments and dance halls, as well as their classification and registration system.	2016
Diploma Ministerial n.° 18/2016 Aprova o Regulamento Interno do Ministério da Cultura e Turismo.	To establish the forms of organisation, coordination and specification of the respective competences, in accordance with and in strict compliance with the respective Organic Statute and other applicable principles and legislation.	2016
Lei da Proteção, Conservação e Uso Sustentável da Diversidade Biológica. Lei n. ° 5/2017, de 11 de maio (Decreto 89/2017)	To regulate Law no. 16/2014, of June 20, amended and republished by Law no. 5/2017, of May 11, the Law on the Protection, Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity.	2017
Nature-based tourism in Mozambique in conservation areas - public and private partnerships (2018) Developed at the initiative of the Ministry of Land, Environment and Local Development of Mozambique	To promote tourism in protected areas - increasing biodiversity, conservation and supporting rural livelihoods. As well as attracting partnerships and investments for nature-based tourism	2018
Regulamento de Transporte em Veículos Automóveis e Reboques, aprovado pelo Decreto n.° Decreto n.° 35/2019 de 26 de fevereiro que revoga o Decreto n.° 11/2009, de 29 de maio.	It establishes the rules for carrying out transportation activities in motor vehicles and trailers.	2019
Decreto n° 10/2023 de 31 de março. Isenção de visto de entrada de estrangeiros turistas de alguns países em Moçambique.	To stimulate tourism and the business environment by unilaterally exempting citizens of certain countries from presenting an entry visa, under the provisions of Article 18(2) of Law 23/22 of December 29, which establishes the Legal Regime for Foreign Citizens, setting the respective rules for entry, stay and exit from the country.	2023

DISCUSSION

Having analyzed the documents listed in table 4, the emphasis is on article 3 of the Mozambican Tourism Law of 2004, where among its many objectives, the imperative to leverage economic and social development through job creation, income generation and poverty reduction stands out, guaranteeing full respect for the natural, archaeological and artistic heritage; encouraging the Mozambican private sector to participate in, promote and develop tourism resources; promoting and guaranteeing safety and tranquility measures for tourists, consumers and tourism service providers, as well as achieving the principle of equal rights and opportunities. Through Resolution no. 14 of 4 April 2003, the Mozambican government approved the "Tourism Policy and Strategy for its Implementation", which establishes the guiding perspective for the growth and development of tourism in the future and, assuming the aims of this research, the policy's objectives include recognizing the real value of conservation areas (comparable to protected areas) in the development of the sector and their power to alleviate poverty; promoting effective community involvement in development programs; contributing to job creation and economic growth; and improving the quality of life of Mozambicans.

Still on the subject of conservation areas, we can distinguish Decree 15/2009 of 14 April 2009, which defines the consignment of revenue from national parks and reserves, stating that 20% of the revenue earmarked for tourism goes to local communities living within conservation/protected areas and buffer zones. Also, noteworthy here are community conservation areas, which aim, among other things, to share the benefits of conserving natural resources and their ecosystem services for the socio-economic and cultural development of communities and their maintenance for future generations (Art. 16 of Decree 89/2017).

We would like to mention the second Strategic Plan for Tourism Development in Mozambique 2015 (PEDTM II) created by the Mozambican Ministry of Culture and Tourism and approved by the 48th Ordinary Session of the Council of Ministers on 8 December 2015, following the recognition of Mozambique's tourism potential in the context of the Action Plan for Poverty Reduction in Mozambique (PARP - APPR), which is aligned with Agenda 2025, designed, from a historical point of view, to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (which have now been replaced by the Sustainable Development Goals that will surely guide Mozambique's new tourism strategic plan), which set the primary objective of reducing poverty through tourism by harnessing its capacity to generate employment, income, growth and economic development.

Thus, it can be seen from the outset that Mozambique, at the moment, is not yet properly aligned with the SDGs, as it has not yet presented up-to-date public tourism policies, although historically, the country has seen tourism as a strong ally in reducing poverty, generating income, jobs, foreign currency and taxes, cooperating for local development and social inclusion. From this perspective, what should be clear is that, according to Traverso (2023), unlike the MDGs, the SDGs were not conceived specifically for governments, but rather emphasize the importance of the private sector in developing actions to achieve their objectives. In other words, tourism has an impact on various sectors and its presence in all countries can co-operate directly and indirectly with the SDGs (ABDOU et al., 2020).

Para além do que foi mencionado supra, o próprio PEDTM (2015), levanta questionamentos quando assume que “Moçambique tem uma boa legislação e políticas de sustentabilidade, mas há poucas evidências de que esta esteja sendo implementada em grande escala e com eficácia” (PEDTM, 2015 p. 32).

In this sense, Soares and Azevedo (2020) also question why public policies aimed at planning and promoting tourism are conducted in such a short-sighted way by the economic representations of the sector, if there is no dissociation between the spatiality of the tourist phenomenon and its economic activity. This view, which is still hegemonic at the moment, which sees tourism only through an economic prism, prevents its development from contributing fully to a process that generates improvements in the quality of life of the societies involved and local development.

It should be noted at this point that the public policies proposed for the tourism sector have left aside the other dimensions of tourism as a phenomenon, especially that related to its spatiality, since they have systematically and practically ignored the processes of appropriation of the territories they constitute, as well as the transformation of places, reproducing historical and structural inequalities (FRATUCCI, 2014).

What makes this problem even more complicated in the case of Mozambique is that most tourism policies, planning guidelines and regulations are of good quality, but are quite complex and inconsistently applied (PEDTM, 2015). This thought is echoed by Dye (2010), who points out that an excess of government regulations, programs and services are created that are not applied, or merely serve to feed the natural tendencies of politicians and bureaucrats to expand their powers in society.

Domingos (2012) brings up another gap when he states that public policies in Mozambique do not participate properly in the implementation of tourism development programs due to the conservative and centralized way in which they are formulated. The production of public policies should give primacy to local participation, based on a deep understanding of the participatory behaviors of the poor, a bottom-up approach to research and policy formulation adopted in order to replace or complement the traditional top-down approach (ALTIERI and MASERA, 1993 as cited in ZHAO and RITCHIE, 2008).

It is important to realize, in this contestation, that there is no one model for initiating action (top-down or bottom-up), because, like a network (SCHNEIDER, 2005), its actors can and must organize themselves to make it happen. However, horizontality is the desired format since they must be involved and be involved in the participation process (COUTINHO, AZEVEDO and NÓBREGA, 2020).

Regarding the involvement of communities in tourism, it can be seen that Mozambique still has a long way to go to achieve the proposals of the aforementioned authors, since PEDTM (2015, p.33) believes that in Mozambique, there is no integrated approach to sustainable community development, because,

there are several barriers to community involvement in tourism development, such as the absence of a land rights system that could allow communities to form partnerships with private operators and the limited capacity of communities to provide goods and services to the tourism sector. The development of community-based tourism is largely based on the availability of resources without adequate consideration of financial and market viability, and there are few community labor associations to manage community-based tourism.

In the PEDTM (2015) and in the Tourism Law (2004), we see a very strong vision of tourism as a universal panacea. Nevertheless, Brasil (2005, as cited in D'ANGELIS and SILVA, 2014) draws attention to the quality of jobs, to understand who they benefit and how the income generated is distributed. What can be seen in practice is that tourism operates according to an economic and financial logic, prioritizing the immediate generation of profits, compromising the natural or cultural environment, increasing social inequalities characterized by extremes of poverty and greater economic distancing between urban and rural/local areas, stimulating the economic dependence of local communities and without long-term guarantees once they start working in tourism to the detriment of their normal activities (BRASIL, 2005 as cited in D'ANGELIS and SILVA, 2014).

Soares and Azevedo (2020) agree with Brasil (2005) when they point out that, among the various dimensions of tourism, the economic dimension has been highlighted for its magnitude and its priority for the current economic system, based on the neoliberal mode of production that favors the interests and effects of and for financial capital. Analyzed in isolation, tourist activity is the result of the actions of only a few social agents, namely entrepreneurs and public authorities. Other agents, such as local communities, including tourists, are only considered secondary agents, both politically and socio-economically.

One of the main weaknesses associated with tourism development in Mozambique is the lack of association of its political and legislative basis with the institutional framework of areas that are actually invested in. Although the National Development Strategy (END, 2014), designed, from a historical point of view, to ensure the implementation of Agenda 2025 (replaced by Agenda 2030 - in Mozambique there are still no tourism policies that have been updated and harmonized with Agenda 2030, they are still historically linked to Agenda 2025 of the MDGs) with the aim of raising the living conditions of the population through the structural transformation of the economy and diversification of the productive base, has tourism as one of the priority areas of the END (2015-2035). To summarize, public tourism policies in Mozambique do not have a decisive impact on the process of reducing poverty and/or social inequality, much less on improving the living conditions of the population, and therefore on socio-territorial vulnerability indicators. Tourism's capacity to generate occupation, employment and income is minimal and in some cases the impacts generated further aggravate the conditions of vulnerability, deepening socio-spatial inequality in tourist territories, as can be seen in the Bazaruto archipelago (CHIUNDILA VICO, AZEVEDO and VICO, 2022).

CONCLUSION

In order to achieve the desired reduction in poverty and promotion of socio-economic development through tourism in Mozambique, reducing social inequalities, public policies need to stimulate opportunities to promote quality jobs, business opportunities in tourism and, above all, to stimulate individual, group, local, community and regional self-dependence through associations, cooperatives and other forms of social articulation to generate their resources and improve their lives. To this end, the literature suggests forgetting processes based on favoritism from hegemonic power (large companies, for example) and always seeking participatory, cooperative, transparent and collectively-based processes.

In this process, governance and the design of tourism public policies must involve civil society and the most vulnerable groups in tourist destinations, following a horizontal, bottom-up format in the form of networks of social actors and ensuring commitment to their implementation, with the state not always as the main actor (traditional approach), but as the coordinator and facilitator of this process.

If this were the case, we would be faced with an ideal process for satisfying human needs, where social justice is maintained, where dependency is reduced and where the socio-economic capacities of the populations living in Mozambique's tourist destinations are expanded on the basis of tourism. It would impose a new system for improving the quality of life of local communities in Mozambique's tourist destinations, based on respect for diversity and placing the human being as the subject of tourism development and through tourism. Thus, development seen from this perspective could reduce the dependence of local communities on tourism and gain autonomy through tourism, protecting their livelihoods, encouraging participation, creativity and integration into all tourism production processes.

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Edited by

Editors in Charge

Jader de Oliveira Santos

Lidriana de Souza Pinheiro

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  13 May 2024
• Date of issue
  2024

History

• Received
  20 Dec 2023
• Accepted
  12 Feb 2024
• Published
  10 Mar 2024