Executive functions and sustained attention:Comparison between age groups of 19-39 and 40-59 years old

Oliveira, Camila Rosa de; Pedron, Ana Cristina; Gurgel, Léia Gonçalves; Reppold, Caroline Tozzi; Fonseca, Rochele Paz

doi:10.1590/S1980-57642012DN06010005

ABSTRACT

Few studies involving the cognition of middle-aged adults are available in the international literature, particularly investigating the process of cognitive aging, executive components and attention.

Objectives:

The aim of this study was to investigate whether there are differences in performance on neuropsychological tasks of executive functions and sustained attention between two age groups.

Methods:

The sample consisted of 87 adults aged from 19 to 59 years old, divided into two groups according to the age variable (younger adults and middle-aged adults). All participants were Brazilian and had no sensory, psychiatric or neurological disorders; subjects also had no history of alcohol abuse, and no self-reported use of illicit drugs or antipsychotics. The neuropsychological instruments administered were the Hayling Test, Trail Making Test, Bells Test and verbal fluency tasks.

Results:

Groups showed no significant differences in relation to sociodemographic variables, educational level or frequency of reading and writing habits. The younger adult group performed better than the middle-aged group on tasks that involved mainly processing speed, cognitive flexibility and lexical search.

Conclusions:

These findings serve as a valuable reference for cognitive processing in middle-aged adults, since a large number of comparative studies focus only on the younger and later phases of adulthood. Additional studies are needed to investigate possible interaction between different factors such as age and education.

Key words:
age groups; executive function; inhibition; attention

RESUMO

Na literatura internacional são escassos os estudos envolvendo a cognição de adultos de meia idade, principalmente quando o objetivo é investigar o processo de envelhecimento cognitivo, de componentes executivos e de atenção.

Objetivos:

Este estudo teve como objetivo verificar se existem diferenças no desempenho em tarefas neuropsicológicas que examinam componentes das funções executivas e da atenção sustentada entre dois grupos etários.

Métodos:

A amostra foi constituída de 87 adultos com idades entre 19-59 anos, divididos em dois grupos de acordo com a variável idade (adultos jovens e adultos de idade intermediária). Os participantes eram originalmente brasileiros e não apresentavam desordem sensorial (não corrigida), psiquiátrica ou neurológica, além de história de abuso de álcool, drogas ilícitas e antipsicóticos autorrelatadas. Os instrumentos utilizados foram o Teste Hayling, Trail Making Test, Teste de Cancelamento dos Sinos e tarefas de fluência verbal.

Resultados:

Os grupos não apresentaram diferenças significativas em relação às variáveis sociodemográficas, além de elevado nível de escolaridade e alta frequência de hábitos de leitura e escrita. O grupo de adultos jovens apresentou melhor desempenho do que o grupo de idade intermediária em tarefas que envolviam, principalmente, velocidade de processamento, flexibilidade cognitiva e busca lexical.

Conclusões:

Estes resultados fornecem referências para o processamento cognitivo também em adultos de idade intermediária, visto que um grande número de estudos comparativos foca apenas nas fases inicial e mais avançada da vida adulta. Estudos adicionais são necessários para investigar a possível interação entre fatores como idade e educação.

Palavras-chave:
grupos etários; funções executivas; inibição; atenção

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REFERENCES

França MP, Wolff CL, Moojen S, Rotta NT. Oral language acquisition: relation and risk for written language. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2004;62:469-472.
Pereira MR, Funayama CAR. Evaluation of some aspects of the acquisition and development of language in pre-term born children. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2004;62:641-648.
Schirmer CR, Fontoura DR, Nune ML. Language and learning disorders. J Pediatr 2004;80:95-103.
Befi-Lopes DM, Rondon S. Primary characteristics of the verbal communication of preschoolers with Specific Language Impairment in spontaneous speech. Rev Soc Bras Fonoaudiol 2010;15:415-420.
Hamdan AC, Bueno OFA. Relações entre controle executivo e memória episódica verbal no comprometimento cognitivo leve e na demência tipo Alzheimer. Est Psicologia 2005;10:63-71.
Davis HP, Small SA, Stern Y, Mayeux R, Feldstein SN, Keller FR. Acquisition, recall, and forgetting of verbal Information in long-term memory by younger, middle-aged, and elderly individuals. Cortex 2003;39:1063-1091.
Fonseca RP, Zimmermann N, Scherer LC, Parente MAMP, Ska B. Episodic memory, concentrated attention and processing speed in aging: a comparative study of Brazilian age groups. Dement Neuropsychol 2010:4:91-97.
Kudiakia C, Aslana A. Executive functions in a Turkish sample: associations with demographic variables and normative data. Appl Neuropsychol 2008:15:194-204.
Oosterman JM, Vogels RL, van Harten B, et al. The role of white matter hyperintensities and medial temporal lobe atrophy in age-related executive dysfunctioning. Brain Cog 2008:68:128-133.
Van der Elst W, Van Boxtel MP, Van Breukelen GJ, Jolles J. Detecting the significance of changes in performance on the Stroop Color-Word Test, Rey's Verbal Learning Test, and the Letter Digit Substitution Test: the regression-based change approach. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2008:14:71-80.
Raz N, Ghisletta P, Rodrigue KM, Kennedy KM, Lindenberger U. Trajectories of brain aging in middle-aged and older adults: regional and individual differences. Neuroimage 2010:51:501-511.
Gilbert SJ, Burgess PW. Executive function. Curr Biol 2008:18:110-114.
Chan RCK, Shumb D, Toulopoulou T, Chen EYH. Assessment of executive functions: Review of instruments and identification of critical issues. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2008:23:201-216.
Tirapu-Ustárroz J, García-Molina A, Luna-Lario P, Roig-Rovira T, Pelegrín-Valero C. Models of executive control and functions. II. Rev Neurol 2008;46:742-750.
Hanna-Pladdy B. Dysexecutive Syndromes in Neurologic Disease.J Neurol Phys Ther 2007:31:119-127.
Souza ROS, Ignácio FA, Cunha FCR, Oliveira DLG, Moll J. The neuropsychology of executive behavior: performance of normal individuals on the Tower of London and Wisconsin Card Sorting tests. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2001;59:526-531.
Parente MAMP, Scherer LC, Zimmermann N, Fonseca RP. Evidence of the role of education in brain organization. Rev Neuropsicol Latinoam 2009;1:72-79.
Yassuda MS, Diniz BSO, Flaks MK, et al. Neuropsychological profile of Brazilian older adults with heterogeneous educational backgrounds. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2009;24:71-79.
LeBlanc J, Guise E, Gosselin N, Feyz M. Comparison of functional outcome following acute care in younger, middle-aged and elderly patients with traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2006;20:779-790.
Cabeza R. Cognitive neuroscience of aging: contributions of functional neuroimaging. Scandinavian J Psychol 2001;42:277-286.
Riddle DR. Brain Aging: Models, Methods, and Mechanisms. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 2007.
Cunha JA. Manual da versão em português das Escalas Beck. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo; 2001.
Chaves ML, Izquierdo I. Differential diagnosis between dementia and depression: a study of efficiency increment. Acta Neurol Scand 1992;85:378-82.
Mari JJ, Williams P. A validity study of a psychiatric screening questionnaire (SRQ-20) in primary care in the city of São Paulo. Br J Psychiatry 1986;148:23-26.
Fonseca RP, Oliveira CR, Gindri G, Zimmermann N, Reppold CT, Parente MAMP. Teste Hayling: Um instrumento de avaliação de componentes das funções executivas. In. C Hutz (Ed.), Avanços em avaliação psicológica e neuropsicológica de crianças e adolescentes. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo ; 2010:337-364.
Bielak AAM, Mansueti L, Strauss E, Dixon R A . Performance on the Hayling and Brixton testes in older adults: Norms and correlates. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2006;21:141-149.
Dixon T, Kravariti E, Frith C, Murray M, McGuire PK. Effect of symptoms on executive function in bipolar illness. Psychol Med 2004;34:811-821.
AIT - Army Individual Test Battery. Manual of directions and scoring. Washington, DC: War Department, Adjutant General´s Office;1944.
Reitan RM, Wolfson D. The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychology Battery: Theory and Clinical Interpretation. South Tucson: Neuropsychology Press; 1995.
Periánez JA, Ríos-Lago M, Rodríguez-Sánchez JM, et al. Trail Making Test in traumatic brain injury, schizophrenia, and normal ageing: Sample comparisons and normative data. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2007; 22:433-447.
Fonseca RP, Parente MAMP, Côté H, Ska B, Joanette Y. Bateria MAC - Instrumento de Avaliação da Comunicação. São Paulo: Pró-Fono;2008.
Fonseca RP, Parente MAMP, Ortiz KZ et al. (editors). Teste de Cancelamento dos Sinos. São Paulo: Vetor; in press.
Moraes EN, Moraes FL, Lima SPP. Características biológicas e psicológicas do envelhecimento. Rev Méd Minas Gerais 2010;20:67-73.
Sánchez-Cubillo JA, Periáñez D, Adrover-Roig JM, et al. Construct validity of the Trail Making Test: Role of task-switching, working memory, inhibition/interference control, and visuomotor abilities. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2009;15:438-450.
Bélanger S, Belleville S. Semantic inhibition impairment in mild cognitive impairment: a distinctive feature of upcoming cognitive decline? Neuropsychology 2009;23:592-606.
Hornberger M, Piguet O, Kipps C, Hodges JR. Executive function in progressive and nonprogressive behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia. Neurology 2008;71:1481-1488.
Hornberger M, Savage S, Hsieh S, Mioshi E, Piguet O, Hodges JR. Orbitofrontal dysfunction discriminates behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia from Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2010;30:547-552.
Banhato EFC, Nascimento E. Função executiva em idosos: um estudo utilizando subtestes da Escala WAIS-III. Psico USF 2007;12:65-73.
Rodrigues AB, Yamashita ET, Chiappetta ALML. Teste de fluência verbal no adulto e no idoso: verificação da aprendizagem verbal. Rev CEFAC 2008;10:443-451.
Mathuranath PS, George A, Cherian PJ, et al. Effects of Age, Education and Gender on Verbal Fluency. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2003;25:1057-1064.
Foss MP, Formigheri P, Speciali JG. Heterogeneity of cognitive aging in Brazilian normal elderls. Dement Neuropsychol 2009;3:344-351.
McCabe DP, Roediger III HL, McDaniel MA, Balota DA, Hambrick DZ. The relationship between working memory capacity and executive functioning: evidence for a common executive attention construct. Neuropsychology 2010;24:222-243.
Vázquez-Marrufo M, Benítez ML, Rodríguez-Gómez G, Galvao-Carmona A, Olmo AF, Vaquero-Casares E. Afectación de las redes neurales atencionales durante el envejecimiento saludable. Rev Neurol 2011; 52:20-26.
Tombaugh TN, Kozak J, Rees L. Normative data stratified by age and education for two measures of verbal fluency: FAS and animal naming. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 1999;14:167-177.
Peña-Casanova JJ, Quiñones-Úbeda S, Gramunt-Fombuena N, et al. Spanish Multicenter Normative Studies (NEURONORMA Project): Norms for Verbal Fluency Tests. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2009;24:395-411.

Publication Dates

Publication in this collection
Jan-Mar 2012

History

Received
20 Dec 2011
Accepted
20 Feb 2012

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License

[1] França MP, Wolff CL, Moojen S, Rotta NT. Oral language acquisition: relation and risk for written language. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2004;62:469-472.

[2] Pereira MR, Funayama CAR. Evaluation of some aspects of the acquisition and development of language in pre-term born children. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2004;62:641-648.

[3] Schirmer CR, Fontoura DR, Nune ML. Language and learning disorders. J Pediatr 2004;80:95-103.

[4] Befi-Lopes DM, Rondon S. Primary characteristics of the verbal communication of preschoolers with Specific Language Impairment in spontaneous speech. Rev Soc Bras Fonoaudiol 2010;15:415-420.

[5] Hamdan AC, Bueno OFA. Relações entre controle executivo e memória episódica verbal no comprometimento cognitivo leve e na demência tipo Alzheimer. Est Psicologia 2005;10:63-71.

[6] Davis HP, Small SA, Stern Y, Mayeux R, Feldstein SN, Keller FR. Acquisition, recall, and forgetting of verbal Information in long-term memory by younger, middle-aged, and elderly individuals. Cortex 2003;39:1063-1091.

[7] Fonseca RP, Zimmermann N, Scherer LC, Parente MAMP, Ska B. Episodic memory, concentrated attention and processing speed in aging: a comparative study of Brazilian age groups. Dement Neuropsychol 2010:4:91-97.

[8] Kudiakia C, Aslana A. Executive functions in a Turkish sample: associations with demographic variables and normative data. Appl Neuropsychol 2008:15:194-204.

[9] Oosterman JM, Vogels RL, van Harten B, et al. The role of white matter hyperintensities and medial temporal lobe atrophy in age-related executive dysfunctioning. Brain Cog 2008:68:128-133.

[10] Van der Elst W, Van Boxtel MP, Van Breukelen GJ, Jolles J. Detecting the significance of changes in performance on the Stroop Color-Word Test, Rey's Verbal Learning Test, and the Letter Digit Substitution Test: the regression-based change approach. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2008:14:71-80.

[11] Raz N, Ghisletta P, Rodrigue KM, Kennedy KM, Lindenberger U. Trajectories of brain aging in middle-aged and older adults: regional and individual differences. Neuroimage 2010:51:501-511.

[12] Gilbert SJ, Burgess PW. Executive function. Curr Biol 2008:18:110-114.

[13] Chan RCK, Shumb D, Toulopoulou T, Chen EYH. Assessment of executive functions: Review of instruments and identification of critical issues. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2008:23:201-216.

[14] Tirapu-Ustárroz J, García-Molina A, Luna-Lario P, Roig-Rovira T, Pelegrín-Valero C. Models of executive control and functions. II. Rev Neurol 2008;46:742-750.

[15] Hanna-Pladdy B. Dysexecutive Syndromes in Neurologic Disease.J Neurol Phys Ther 2007:31:119-127.

[16] Souza ROS, Ignácio FA, Cunha FCR, Oliveira DLG, Moll J. The neuropsychology of executive behavior: performance of normal individuals on the Tower of London and Wisconsin Card Sorting tests. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2001;59:526-531.

[17] Parente MAMP, Scherer LC, Zimmermann N, Fonseca RP. Evidence of the role of education in brain organization. Rev Neuropsicol Latinoam 2009;1:72-79.

[18] Yassuda MS, Diniz BSO, Flaks MK, et al. Neuropsychological profile of Brazilian older adults with heterogeneous educational backgrounds. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2009;24:71-79.

[19] LeBlanc J, Guise E, Gosselin N, Feyz M. Comparison of functional outcome following acute care in younger, middle-aged and elderly patients with traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2006;20:779-790.

[20] Cabeza R. Cognitive neuroscience of aging: contributions of functional neuroimaging. Scandinavian J Psychol 2001;42:277-286.

[21] Riddle DR. Brain Aging: Models, Methods, and Mechanisms. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 2007.

[22] Cunha JA. Manual da versão em português das Escalas Beck. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo; 2001.

[23] Chaves ML, Izquierdo I. Differential diagnosis between dementia and depression: a study of efficiency increment. Acta Neurol Scand 1992;85:378-82.

[24] Mari JJ, Williams P. A validity study of a psychiatric screening questionnaire (SRQ-20) in primary care in the city of São Paulo. Br J Psychiatry 1986;148:23-26.

[25] Fonseca RP, Oliveira CR, Gindri G, Zimmermann N, Reppold CT, Parente MAMP. Teste Hayling: Um instrumento de avaliação de componentes das funções executivas. In. C Hutz (Ed.), Avanços em avaliação psicológica e neuropsicológica de crianças e adolescentes. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo ; 2010:337-364.

[26] Bielak AAM, Mansueti L, Strauss E, Dixon R A . Performance on the Hayling and Brixton testes in older adults: Norms and correlates. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2006;21:141-149.

[27] Dixon T, Kravariti E, Frith C, Murray M, McGuire PK. Effect of symptoms on executive function in bipolar illness. Psychol Med 2004;34:811-821.

[28] AIT - Army Individual Test Battery. Manual of directions and scoring. Washington, DC: War Department, Adjutant General´s Office;1944.

[29] Reitan RM, Wolfson D. The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychology Battery: Theory and Clinical Interpretation. South Tucson: Neuropsychology Press; 1995.

[30] Periánez JA, Ríos-Lago M, Rodríguez-Sánchez JM, et al. Trail Making Test in traumatic brain injury, schizophrenia, and normal ageing: Sample comparisons and normative data. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2007; 22:433-447.

[31] Fonseca RP, Parente MAMP, Côté H, Ska B, Joanette Y. Bateria MAC - Instrumento de Avaliação da Comunicação. São Paulo: Pró-Fono;2008.

[32] Fonseca RP, Parente MAMP, Ortiz KZ et al. (editors). Teste de Cancelamento dos Sinos. São Paulo: Vetor; in press.

[33] Moraes EN, Moraes FL, Lima SPP. Características biológicas e psicológicas do envelhecimento. Rev Méd Minas Gerais 2010;20:67-73.

[34] Sánchez-Cubillo JA, Periáñez D, Adrover-Roig JM, et al. Construct validity of the Trail Making Test: Role of task-switching, working memory, inhibition/interference control, and visuomotor abilities. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2009;15:438-450.

[35] Bélanger S, Belleville S. Semantic inhibition impairment in mild cognitive impairment: a distinctive feature of upcoming cognitive decline? Neuropsychology 2009;23:592-606.

[36] Hornberger M, Piguet O, Kipps C, Hodges JR. Executive function in progressive and nonprogressive behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia. Neurology 2008;71:1481-1488.

[37] Hornberger M, Savage S, Hsieh S, Mioshi E, Piguet O, Hodges JR. Orbitofrontal dysfunction discriminates behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia from Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2010;30:547-552.

[38] Banhato EFC, Nascimento E. Função executiva em idosos: um estudo utilizando subtestes da Escala WAIS-III. Psico USF 2007;12:65-73.

[39] Rodrigues AB, Yamashita ET, Chiappetta ALML. Teste de fluência verbal no adulto e no idoso: verificação da aprendizagem verbal. Rev CEFAC 2008;10:443-451.

[40] Mathuranath PS, George A, Cherian PJ, et al. Effects of Age, Education and Gender on Verbal Fluency. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2003;25:1057-1064.

[41] Foss MP, Formigheri P, Speciali JG. Heterogeneity of cognitive aging in Brazilian normal elderls. Dement Neuropsychol 2009;3:344-351.

[42] McCabe DP, Roediger III HL, McDaniel MA, Balota DA, Hambrick DZ. The relationship between working memory capacity and executive functioning: evidence for a common executive attention construct. Neuropsychology 2010;24:222-243.

[43] Vázquez-Marrufo M, Benítez ML, Rodríguez-Gómez G, Galvao-Carmona A, Olmo AF, Vaquero-Casares E. Afectación de las redes neurales atencionales durante el envejecimiento saludable. Rev Neurol 2011; 52:20-26.

[44] Tombaugh TN, Kozak J, Rees L. Normative data stratified by age and education for two measures of verbal fluency: FAS and animal naming. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 1999;14:167-177.

[45] Peña-Casanova JJ, Quiñones-Úbeda S, Gramunt-Fombuena N, et al. Spanish Multicenter Normative Studies (NEURONORMA Project): Norms for Verbal Fluency Tests. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2009;24:395-411.

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