Event-related potentials and the study of memory retrieval: A critical Review

Jaeger, Antonio; Parente, Maria Alice de Mattos Pimenta

doi:10.1590/S1980-57642009DN20400003

Abstract

Memory retrieval has been extensively investigated by a variety of techniques and methodological approaches. The present article reports a critical review on the research investigating this subject by means of event-related potentials (ERP). The main goal is to elucidate the key contributions of this technique regarding episodic memory retrieval, as well as to perform a critical analysis taking into account its major advantages and limitations in the framework of current cognitive neuroscience. Considerations concerning its theoretical contributions and implementation in national universities are also discussed.

Key words:
memory; retrieval; event-related potentials.

Resumo

A recuperação de memórias tem sido extensivamente pesquisada por uma variedade de técnicas e abordagens metodológicas. No presente artigo, é conduzida uma revisão crítica das pesquisas que investigaram este tema através da utilização da técnica denominada potenciais relacionados ao evento (PRE). O objetivo principal é elucidar as principais contribuições proporcionadas por esta técnica referente aos processos de recuperação de memórias episódicas, assim como realizar uma análise crítica levando em consideração as principais vantagens e limitações desta abordagem dentro do contexto atual da neurociência cognitiva. Um balanço de suas contribuições teóricas e de sua utilização em universidades nacionais é por fim desenvolvido.

Palavras-chave:
memória; recuperação; potenciais relacionados ao evento.

Texto completo disponível apenas em PDF.

Full text available only in PDF format.

References

¹
Tulving E, Thomson DM. Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychol Rev 1973;80:352-373.
²
Handy TC. Event-related potentials:a methods handbook. New York: The Bradford books; 2005.
³
Niedermeyer E, Lopes da Silva F. Electroencephalography:basic principles, clinical applications, and related fields, 5th ed. New York: Lippincott Willians & Wilkins; 2004.
⁴
Bressler SL. Event-Related Potentials. In: MA Arbib, editor. The handbook of brain theory and neural networks. Cambridge: MIT Press; 2002:412-415
⁵
Wilding EL. On the practice of rescaling scalp-recorded event-related potentials. Biol Psychol 2000;72:325-332.
⁶
Lopes da Silva F . Dynamics of EEGs as signals of neuronal populations:models and theoretical considerations. In: E Niedermeyer, F Lopes da Silva, Editors. Electroencephalography: basic principles, clinical applications, and related fields, 5th ed., New York: Lippincott Willians & Wilkins; 2004:76-92.
⁷
Kutas M, Dale A. Electrical and magnetic readings of mental functions. In: MD Rugg, Editor. Cognitive Neuroscience. Cambridge: The MIT press; 1997:197-242
⁸
Coles MGH, Rugg MD. Event-related brain potentials:an introduction. In: MD Rugg, MGH Coles, Editors. Electrophysiology of mind:event-related brain potentials and cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1995:1-26.
⁹
Nunez PL, Srinivasan R. Electric fields of the brain: the neurophysics of EEG. Oxford: Oxford University Press ; 2006.
¹⁰
Rugg MD, Curran T. Event-related potentials and recognition memory. Trends Cog Sci 2007;11:251-257.
¹¹
Dhond RP, Witzel T, Dale AM, Halgren E. Spatiotemporal brain maps of delayed word repetition and recognition. Neuroimage 2005;28:293-304.
¹²
Williamson SJ, Lu ZL, Karron D, Kaufman L. Advantages and limitations of magnetic source image. Brain Topogr 1991;4:169-180.
¹³
Rugg MD. Retrieval processing in human memory: Electrophysiological and fMRI evidence. In: MS Gazzaniga, Editor. The cognitive neurosciences III, 3 ed. New York: The MIT press; 2005.
¹⁴
Tulving E. Ecphoric processes in episodic memory. Philos Trans R Soc 1983;302:361-371.
¹⁵
Rugg MD, Wilding EL. Retrieval processing and episodic memory. Trends Cog Sci 2000;4:108-115.
¹⁶
Herron JE, Rugg MD. Retrieval orientation and control of recollection. J Cogn Neurosci 2003;15:843-854.
¹⁷
Hornberger M, Morcom AM, Rugg MD. Neural correlates of retrieval orientation: effects of study-test similarity. J Cogn Neurosci 2004;16:1196-1210.
¹⁸
Rugg MD, Allan K, Birch CS. Electrophysiological evidence for the modulation of retrieval orientation by depth of study processing. J Cogn Neurosci 2000;12:664-678.
¹⁹
Dzulkifli MA, Sharpe HL, Wilding EL. Separating item-related electrophysiological indices of retrieval effort and retrieval orientation. Brain Cogn 2004;55:433-443.
²⁰
Robb WGK, Rugg MD. Electrophysiological dissociation of retrieval orientation and retrieval effort. Psychon Bull Rev 2002;9:583-589.
²¹
Hornberger M, Rugg MD, Henson RN. ERP correlates of retrieval orientation:direct versus indirect memory tasks. Brain Res 2006;1071:124-136.
²²
Johnson JD, Rugg MD. Modulation of the electrophysiological correlates of retrieval cue processing by the specificity of task demands. Brain Res 2006;1071:153-164.
²³
Jacoby LL. A process dissociation framework:separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. J Mem Lang 1991;30:513-541.
²⁴
Johnson JD, Rugg MD. Electrophysiological correlates of retrieval processing:effects of consistent versus inconsistent retrieval demands. J Cogn Neurosci 2006;18:1531-1544.
²⁵
Budson AE, Droller DBJ, Dobson CS, et al. Electrophysiological dissociation of picture versus word encoding:the distinctiveness heuristic as a retrieval orientation. J Cogn Neurosci 2005;17:1181-1193.
²⁶
Stenberg G, Johansonn M, Rosén I. Conceptual and perceptual memory:retrieval orientations reflected in event-related potentials. Acta Psychol 2006;122:174-205.
²⁷
Wixted JT. Dual-process theory and signal-detection theory of recognition memory. Psychol Rev 2007;114:152-176.
²⁸
Yonelinas AP. Receiver-operating characteristics in recognition memory:evidence for a dual-process model. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 1994;20:1341-1354.
²⁹
Yonelinas AP. Components of episodic memory:the contribution of recollection and familiarity. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2001;356:1363-1374.
³⁰
Brown CM, Aggleton JP. Recognition Memory:what are the roles of the perirhinal cortex and hippocampus? Nat Rev Neurosci 2001;2:51-61.
³¹
Holdstock JS, Mayes AR, Roberts N, Cezayirli E, Isaac CL, O'Reilly RC, Norman KA. Under what condition is recognition spared relative to recall after selective hippocampal damage in humans? Hippocampus 2002;12:341-351.
³²
Yonelinas AP, Otten LJ, Shaw KN, Rugg MD. Separating the brain regions involved in recollection and familiarity in recognition memory. J Neurosci 2005;25:3002-3008.
³³
Curran T, Tepe KL, Piatt C. Event-related potential explorations of dual process in recognition memory. In: HD Zimmer, A Mecklinger, U Lindenberger, editors. Binding in human memory: a neurocognitive approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press ; 2006:467-492.
³⁴
Wolk DA, Schacter DL, Lygizos M, et al. ERP correlates of Remember/Know decisions: association with the late posterior negativity. Biol Psychol 2007;75:131-135.
³⁵
Duarte A, Ranganath C, Winward L, Hayward D, Knight RT. Dissociable neural correlates for familiarity and recollection during the encoding and retrieval of pictures. Brain Res 2004;18:255-272.
³⁶
Woodruff CC, Hayama HR, Rugg MD. Electrophysiological dissociation of the neural correlates of recollection and familiarity. Brain Res 2006;1100:125-135.
³⁷
Vilberg KL, Moosavi RF, Rugg MD. The relationship between electrophysiological correlates of recollection and amount of information retrieved. Brain Res 2006;1122:161-170.
³⁸
Curran T. Effects of attention and confidence on hypothesized ERP correlates of recollection and familiarity. Neuropsychologia 2004;42:1088-1106.
³⁹
Johnson JD, Minton BR, Rugg MD. Content dependence of the electrophysiological correlates of recollection. Neuroimage 2008;39:406-416.
⁴⁰
Duzel E, Yonelinas AP, Mangun GR, Heinze H, Tulving E. Event-related brain potentials correlates of two states of conscious awareness in memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94:5973-5978.
⁴¹
Wilding EL, Rugg MD. An event-related potential study of recognition memory with and without retrieval of source. Brain 1997;119:889-905.
⁴²
Trott CT, Friedman D, Ritter W, Fabiani M. Item and source memory:differential age effects revealed by event-related potentials. Neuroreport 1997;8:3373-3378.
⁴³
Donaldson DI, Rugg MD. Recognition memory for new associations:electrophysiological evidence for the role of recollection. Neuropsychologia 1998;36:377-395.
⁴⁴
Wiese H, Daum I. Frontal positivity discriminates true and false recognition. Brain Res 2006;1075:183-192.
⁴⁵
Wolk DA, Schacter DL, Lygizos M, et al. ERP correlates of recognition memory:effects of retention interval and false alarm. Brain Res 2006;1096:148-162.
⁴⁶
Vilberg KL, Rugg MD. Dissociation of the neural correlates of recognition memory according to familiarity, recollection, and amount of recollected information. Neuropsychologia 2007;45:2216-2225.
⁴⁷
Allan K, Wilding EL, Rugg MD. Electrophysiological evidence for dissociable processes contributing to recollection. Acta Psychol 1998;98:231-252.
⁴⁸
Senkfor AJ, Van Petten C. Who said what? An event-related potential investigation of source and item memory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 1998;24:1005-1025.
⁴⁹
Van Petten C, Senkfor AJ, Newberg WM. Memory for drawings in location:spatial source memory and event-related potentials. Psychophysiology 2000;37:551-564.
⁵⁰
Trott CT, Friedman D, Ritter W, Fabiani M, Snodgrass JG. Episodic priming and memory for temporal source:Event-related potentials reveal age-related differences in pre-frontal functioning. Psychol Aging 1999;14:390-413.
⁵¹
Ullsperger M, Mecklinger A, Muller U. An electrophysiological test of directed forgetting:the role of retrieval inhibition. J Cogn Neurosci 2000;12:924-940.
⁵²
Dobbins IG, Han S. Isolating rule- versus evidence-based prefrontal activity during episodic and lexical discrimination:a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of detection theory distinctions. Cereb Cortex 2006;16:1614-1622.
⁵³
Fleck MS, Daselaar SM, Dobbins IG, Cabeza, R. Role of prefrontal and anterior cingulated regions in decision-making processes shared by memory and nonmemory tasks. Cereb Cortex 2006;16:1623-1630.
⁵⁴
Hayama HR, Johnson JD, Rugg MD. The relationship between the right frontal old/new ERP effect and post-retrieval monitoring:specific or non-specific? Neuropsychologia (in press).
⁵⁵
Woodruff CC, Uncapher MR, Rugg MD. Neural correlates of differential retrieval orientation:sustained and item-related components. Neuropsychologia 2006;44:3000-3010.
⁵⁶
Parks CM, Yonelinas AP. Moving beyond pure signal-detection models: comment on Wixted (2007). Psychol Rev 2007;114:188-202.
⁵⁷
Curran T, DeBuse C, Woroch B, Hirshman E. Combined pharmacological and electrophysiological dissociation of familiarity and recollection. J Neurosci 2006;26:1979-1985.
⁵⁸
França AI, Lemle M, Cagy M, Constant P, Infantosi AFC. Discriminating among different types of verb-complement merge in brazilian portuguese: an ERP study of morpho-synthatic sub-processes. J Neurolinguistics 2004;17:425-437.
⁵⁹
Handy TC, Soltani M, Mangun GR. Perceptual load and visuocortical processing: Event-related potential reveal sensory-level selection. Psychol Sci 2001;3:213-218.
⁶⁰
Pickering EC, Schweinberger SR. N200, N250r, and N400 event-related brain potentials reveal three loci of repetition priming for familiar names. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2003;6:1298-1311.
⁶¹
Makeig S, Westerfield M, Jung TP, et al. Dynamic brain sources of visual evoked responses. Science 2002;295:690-693.
⁶²
Smith APR, Dolan RJ, Rugg MD. Event-related potentials correlates of the retrieval of emotional and nonemotional context. J Cogn Neurosci 2004;16:760-775.
⁶³
Smith APR, Henson RN, Dolan RJ, Rugg MD. fMRI correlates of the episodic retrieval of emotional contexts. Neuroimage 2004; 22:868-878.
⁶⁴
Sutton S, Braren M, Zubin J, John ER. Evoked-potentials correlates of stimulus uncertainty. Science 1965;150:1187-1188.

Publication Dates

Publication in this collection
Oct-Dec 2008

History

Received
13 Aug 2008
Accepted
16 Oct 2008

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License

[1] ¹
Tulving E, Thomson DM. Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychol Rev 1973;80:352-373.

[2] ²
Handy TC. Event-related potentials:a methods handbook. New York: The Bradford books; 2005.

[3] ³
Niedermeyer E, Lopes da Silva F. Electroencephalography:basic principles, clinical applications, and related fields, 5th ed. New York: Lippincott Willians & Wilkins; 2004.

[4] ⁴
Bressler SL. Event-Related Potentials. In: MA Arbib, editor. The handbook of brain theory and neural networks. Cambridge: MIT Press; 2002:412-415

[5] ⁵
Wilding EL. On the practice of rescaling scalp-recorded event-related potentials. Biol Psychol 2000;72:325-332.

[6] ⁶
Lopes da Silva F . Dynamics of EEGs as signals of neuronal populations:models and theoretical considerations. In: E Niedermeyer, F Lopes da Silva, Editors. Electroencephalography: basic principles, clinical applications, and related fields, 5th ed., New York: Lippincott Willians & Wilkins; 2004:76-92.

[7] ⁷
Kutas M, Dale A. Electrical and magnetic readings of mental functions. In: MD Rugg, Editor. Cognitive Neuroscience. Cambridge: The MIT press; 1997:197-242

[8] ⁸
Coles MGH, Rugg MD. Event-related brain potentials:an introduction. In: MD Rugg, MGH Coles, Editors. Electrophysiology of mind:event-related brain potentials and cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1995:1-26.

[9] ⁹
Nunez PL, Srinivasan R. Electric fields of the brain: the neurophysics of EEG. Oxford: Oxford University Press ; 2006.

[10] ¹⁰
Rugg MD, Curran T. Event-related potentials and recognition memory. Trends Cog Sci 2007;11:251-257.

[11] ¹¹
Dhond RP, Witzel T, Dale AM, Halgren E. Spatiotemporal brain maps of delayed word repetition and recognition. Neuroimage 2005;28:293-304.

[12] ¹²
Williamson SJ, Lu ZL, Karron D, Kaufman L. Advantages and limitations of magnetic source image. Brain Topogr 1991;4:169-180.

[13] ¹³
Rugg MD. Retrieval processing in human memory: Electrophysiological and fMRI evidence. In: MS Gazzaniga, Editor. The cognitive neurosciences III, 3 ed. New York: The MIT press; 2005.

[14] ¹⁴
Tulving E. Ecphoric processes in episodic memory. Philos Trans R Soc 1983;302:361-371.

[15] ¹⁵
Rugg MD, Wilding EL. Retrieval processing and episodic memory. Trends Cog Sci 2000;4:108-115.

[16] ¹⁶
Herron JE, Rugg MD. Retrieval orientation and control of recollection. J Cogn Neurosci 2003;15:843-854.

[17] ¹⁷
Hornberger M, Morcom AM, Rugg MD. Neural correlates of retrieval orientation: effects of study-test similarity. J Cogn Neurosci 2004;16:1196-1210.

[18] ¹⁸
Rugg MD, Allan K, Birch CS. Electrophysiological evidence for the modulation of retrieval orientation by depth of study processing. J Cogn Neurosci 2000;12:664-678.

[19] ¹⁹
Dzulkifli MA, Sharpe HL, Wilding EL. Separating item-related electrophysiological indices of retrieval effort and retrieval orientation. Brain Cogn 2004;55:433-443.

[20] ²⁰
Robb WGK, Rugg MD. Electrophysiological dissociation of retrieval orientation and retrieval effort. Psychon Bull Rev 2002;9:583-589.

[21] ²¹
Hornberger M, Rugg MD, Henson RN. ERP correlates of retrieval orientation:direct versus indirect memory tasks. Brain Res 2006;1071:124-136.

[22] ²²
Johnson JD, Rugg MD. Modulation of the electrophysiological correlates of retrieval cue processing by the specificity of task demands. Brain Res 2006;1071:153-164.

[23] ²³
Jacoby LL. A process dissociation framework:separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. J Mem Lang 1991;30:513-541.

[24] ²⁴
Johnson JD, Rugg MD. Electrophysiological correlates of retrieval processing:effects of consistent versus inconsistent retrieval demands. J Cogn Neurosci 2006;18:1531-1544.

[25] ²⁵
Budson AE, Droller DBJ, Dobson CS, et al. Electrophysiological dissociation of picture versus word encoding:the distinctiveness heuristic as a retrieval orientation. J Cogn Neurosci 2005;17:1181-1193.

[26] ²⁶
Stenberg G, Johansonn M, Rosén I. Conceptual and perceptual memory:retrieval orientations reflected in event-related potentials. Acta Psychol 2006;122:174-205.

[27] ²⁷
Wixted JT. Dual-process theory and signal-detection theory of recognition memory. Psychol Rev 2007;114:152-176.

[28] ²⁸
Yonelinas AP. Receiver-operating characteristics in recognition memory:evidence for a dual-process model. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 1994;20:1341-1354.

[29] ²⁹
Yonelinas AP. Components of episodic memory:the contribution of recollection and familiarity. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2001;356:1363-1374.

[30] ³⁰
Brown CM, Aggleton JP. Recognition Memory:what are the roles of the perirhinal cortex and hippocampus? Nat Rev Neurosci 2001;2:51-61.

[31] ³¹
Holdstock JS, Mayes AR, Roberts N, Cezayirli E, Isaac CL, O'Reilly RC, Norman KA. Under what condition is recognition spared relative to recall after selective hippocampal damage in humans? Hippocampus 2002;12:341-351.

[32] ³²
Yonelinas AP, Otten LJ, Shaw KN, Rugg MD. Separating the brain regions involved in recollection and familiarity in recognition memory. J Neurosci 2005;25:3002-3008.

[33] ³³
Curran T, Tepe KL, Piatt C. Event-related potential explorations of dual process in recognition memory. In: HD Zimmer, A Mecklinger, U Lindenberger, editors. Binding in human memory: a neurocognitive approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press ; 2006:467-492.

[34] ³⁴
Wolk DA, Schacter DL, Lygizos M, et al. ERP correlates of Remember/Know decisions: association with the late posterior negativity. Biol Psychol 2007;75:131-135.

[35] ³⁵
Duarte A, Ranganath C, Winward L, Hayward D, Knight RT. Dissociable neural correlates for familiarity and recollection during the encoding and retrieval of pictures. Brain Res 2004;18:255-272.

[36] ³⁶
Woodruff CC, Hayama HR, Rugg MD. Electrophysiological dissociation of the neural correlates of recollection and familiarity. Brain Res 2006;1100:125-135.

[37] ³⁷
Vilberg KL, Moosavi RF, Rugg MD. The relationship between electrophysiological correlates of recollection and amount of information retrieved. Brain Res 2006;1122:161-170.

[38] ³⁸
Curran T. Effects of attention and confidence on hypothesized ERP correlates of recollection and familiarity. Neuropsychologia 2004;42:1088-1106.

[39] ³⁹
Johnson JD, Minton BR, Rugg MD. Content dependence of the electrophysiological correlates of recollection. Neuroimage 2008;39:406-416.

[40] ⁴⁰
Duzel E, Yonelinas AP, Mangun GR, Heinze H, Tulving E. Event-related brain potentials correlates of two states of conscious awareness in memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94:5973-5978.

[41] ⁴¹
Wilding EL, Rugg MD. An event-related potential study of recognition memory with and without retrieval of source. Brain 1997;119:889-905.

[42] ⁴²
Trott CT, Friedman D, Ritter W, Fabiani M. Item and source memory:differential age effects revealed by event-related potentials. Neuroreport 1997;8:3373-3378.

[43] ⁴³
Donaldson DI, Rugg MD. Recognition memory for new associations:electrophysiological evidence for the role of recollection. Neuropsychologia 1998;36:377-395.

[44] ⁴⁴
Wiese H, Daum I. Frontal positivity discriminates true and false recognition. Brain Res 2006;1075:183-192.

[45] ⁴⁵
Wolk DA, Schacter DL, Lygizos M, et al. ERP correlates of recognition memory:effects of retention interval and false alarm. Brain Res 2006;1096:148-162.

[46] ⁴⁶
Vilberg KL, Rugg MD. Dissociation of the neural correlates of recognition memory according to familiarity, recollection, and amount of recollected information. Neuropsychologia 2007;45:2216-2225.

[47] ⁴⁷
Allan K, Wilding EL, Rugg MD. Electrophysiological evidence for dissociable processes contributing to recollection. Acta Psychol 1998;98:231-252.

[48] ⁴⁸
Senkfor AJ, Van Petten C. Who said what? An event-related potential investigation of source and item memory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 1998;24:1005-1025.

[49] ⁴⁹
Van Petten C, Senkfor AJ, Newberg WM. Memory for drawings in location:spatial source memory and event-related potentials. Psychophysiology 2000;37:551-564.

[50] ⁵⁰
Trott CT, Friedman D, Ritter W, Fabiani M, Snodgrass JG. Episodic priming and memory for temporal source:Event-related potentials reveal age-related differences in pre-frontal functioning. Psychol Aging 1999;14:390-413.

[51] ⁵¹
Ullsperger M, Mecklinger A, Muller U. An electrophysiological test of directed forgetting:the role of retrieval inhibition. J Cogn Neurosci 2000;12:924-940.

[52] ⁵²
Dobbins IG, Han S. Isolating rule- versus evidence-based prefrontal activity during episodic and lexical discrimination:a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of detection theory distinctions. Cereb Cortex 2006;16:1614-1622.

[53] ⁵³
Fleck MS, Daselaar SM, Dobbins IG, Cabeza, R. Role of prefrontal and anterior cingulated regions in decision-making processes shared by memory and nonmemory tasks. Cereb Cortex 2006;16:1623-1630.

[54] ⁵⁴
Hayama HR, Johnson JD, Rugg MD. The relationship between the right frontal old/new ERP effect and post-retrieval monitoring:specific or non-specific? Neuropsychologia (in press).

[55] ⁵⁵
Woodruff CC, Uncapher MR, Rugg MD. Neural correlates of differential retrieval orientation:sustained and item-related components. Neuropsychologia 2006;44:3000-3010.

[56] ⁵⁶
Parks CM, Yonelinas AP. Moving beyond pure signal-detection models: comment on Wixted (2007). Psychol Rev 2007;114:188-202.

[57] ⁵⁷
Curran T, DeBuse C, Woroch B, Hirshman E. Combined pharmacological and electrophysiological dissociation of familiarity and recollection. J Neurosci 2006;26:1979-1985.

[58] ⁵⁸
França AI, Lemle M, Cagy M, Constant P, Infantosi AFC. Discriminating among different types of verb-complement merge in brazilian portuguese: an ERP study of morpho-synthatic sub-processes. J Neurolinguistics 2004;17:425-437.

[59] ⁵⁹
Handy TC, Soltani M, Mangun GR. Perceptual load and visuocortical processing: Event-related potential reveal sensory-level selection. Psychol Sci 2001;3:213-218.

[60] ⁶⁰
Pickering EC, Schweinberger SR. N200, N250r, and N400 event-related brain potentials reveal three loci of repetition priming for familiar names. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2003;6:1298-1311.

[61] ⁶¹
Makeig S, Westerfield M, Jung TP, et al. Dynamic brain sources of visual evoked responses. Science 2002;295:690-693.

[62] ⁶²
Smith APR, Dolan RJ, Rugg MD. Event-related potentials correlates of the retrieval of emotional and nonemotional context. J Cogn Neurosci 2004;16:760-775.

[63] ⁶³
Smith APR, Henson RN, Dolan RJ, Rugg MD. fMRI correlates of the episodic retrieval of emotional contexts. Neuroimage 2004; 22:868-878.

[64] ⁶⁴
Sutton S, Braren M, Zubin J, John ER. Evoked-potentials correlates of stimulus uncertainty. Science 1965;150:1187-1188.

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