"Why am i a volunteer?": building a quantitative scale

"Por que sou voluntário?": etapa de construção de escala quantitativa

ARTIGOS CIENTÍFICOS

"Why am i a volunteer?": building a quantitative scale

"Por que sou voluntário?": etapa de construção de escala quantitativa

Carlos Eduardo Cavalcante^I; Washington José de Souza^II; Leandro Trigueiro Fernandes^III; Clarisse Lorena Barreto Cortez^IV

^IUniversidade Federal da Paraíba - João Pessoa / PB, Brasil. [e-mail]

^IIUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte - Natal / RN, Brasil. [e-mail]

^IIIUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte - Natal / RN, Brasil. [e-mail]

^IVUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte - Natal / RN, Brasil. [e-mail]

ABSTRACT

This paper aims to analyze the validity of a quantitative instrument to identify what attracts someone to volunteer work, as well as what makes them stay and what makes them quit such an activity. The theoretical framework lists aspects related to volunteer work, which is followed by a discussion on models of analysis of volunteer motivation. As to the objectives, this research is descriptive, since it presents the analysis of the validity of a quantitative instrument that seeks to understand and describe the reasons for volunteering at the Pastoral da Criança, a Brazilian NGO. This instrument is based on theoretical ideas by Souza, Medeiros and Fernandes (2006). Reliability - Cronbach's Alpha - reached values between 0.7 and 0.8. Regarding Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy a good index was also obtained: 0.74. Despite the good results of reliability and sampling adequacy of factor analysis, none of the variables resulted in the expected combination, namely: indicators versus profile. It is necessary to improve the semantic meaning of certain factors, or even increase the number of indicators so as to generate additional correlations among them.

Keywords: Motivation; Volunteer Work; Instrument Validity.

RESUMO

A análise da validade de um instrumento quantitativo que permita conhecer o que conduz, o que mantém e o que faz deixar um voluntário a sua atividade é o objetivo deste trabalho. No referencial teórico são elencados aspectos inerentes ao trabalho voluntário seguidos da discussão de modelos de análise da motivação voluntária. Quanto aos objetivos, esta pesquisa é descritiva, uma vez que apresenta a análise da validade de um instrumento quantitativo que busca compreender e descrever motivos do trabalho voluntário na Pastoral da Criança. O instrumento é baseado em idéias teóricas de Souza, Medeiros e Fernandes (2006). O índice de confiabilidade - Alfa de Cronbach - alcançou valores entre 0,7 e 0,8. No que tange ao Teste de Adequação da Amostra Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin também um bom índice foi obtido: 0,74. Apesar dos bons resultados de confiabilidade e dos testes de adequação da Análise Fatorial, em nenhuma das variáveis foi encontrada a combinação esperada, qual seja: questões versus perfil. Há a necessidade de melhorar o sentido semântico de determinados fatores, ou mesmo de aumentar a quantidade de indicadores, para que eles consigam gerar outras correlações entre eles.

Palavras-chave: Motivação; Trabalho Voluntário; Validade de Instrumento

INTRODUCTION

Consider these figures: 63.4 million people in the USA. Another 56.5 million people in Japan; around 8.1 billion hours worked in the USA and 7.2 billion in Japan; in financial terms, around 169 billion dollars in the USA and 150 billion in Japan¹ (CORPORATION FOR NATIONAL AND COMMUNITY SERVICE, 2010; HADDAD, 2010). Despite being statistics and figures related to volunteering in the USA and Japan, these values alone are greater than most world economies.

In Brazil, the numbers are also robust: about 19.7 million volunteers (IBGE, 2010) which, following the same logic of the above calculation, reach 2.5 billion hours of work and generate about 52 billion US dollars.

These numbers demonstrate the importance of volunteer work in the world. Although it is run on a voluntary basis, this kind of work has been influenced in the same way that paid work has. Today, the work market (paid or unpaid) and work relations are affected by a series of changes, which include phenomena such as globalization, internationalization of financial markets, flexibility of labor relations, restructuring of production, technological innovation, increased competition among countries and/or within a country (local), among others.

In response to various types of social problems resulting from crises, structural and/or circumstancial, organizations that provide social assistance through volunteer work have been specially strengthened. These organizations have implemented social policies that were once exclusive to the State, which, in turn, is weakened by its funding crisis and the simultaneous intensification of market relations. In a context characterized by inequalities, precarious work, unemployment, among other phenomena, the development of social organizations puts continuous pressure on the ills generated by the current system.

It is interesting to note that social organizations have presented evidence that does not free them from the factors that influence work. Social organizations have also suffered from lack of resources and, in special, shortage of staff. Bussell and Forbes (2002) in Europe, and Gaskin (1998) in the USA, point out a drop in the number of volunteers. At local level, Cavalcante (2005), in a similar research context carried out in thirteen NGOs in the city of Natal (capital city of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil) found a high turnover of volunteers: about 62.34% of the volunteers in NGOs remain for up to two years, as seen on the chart.

Given this scenario, the need to recognize the reasons that lead an individual to volunteer and remain in this activity may have relevance both in the academic and organizational level.

To the academy, this paper is the first step to construct a quantitative instrument to identify the reasons for joining, staying and quitting volunteer work, as well as the expectations of volunteers in the Brazilian northeastern region. Such effort is justified: research based on the titles/keywords/abstracts that contained the equivalent terms in Portuguese language to "voluntary", "volunteer", "volunteering" or "third sector", in two Brazilian digital databases, namely, Domínio Público (meaning Public Domain) and Biblioteca Digital de Teses e Dissertações (meaning Theses and Dissertations Digital Library) (bringing together some 101 national universities), as well as research in journals rated Qualis² (ranging from A1 to B5) and the Anpad website (National Association of Graduate Business Administration), found a total of 562 papers.

However, upon examining the abstracts, only 20 papers were identified as covering to some extent what we wanted to know: the motivation for voluntary work in nonprofit organizations. Out of these 20, none made use of quantitative methodologies for handling the data.

As for organizations, this study can help reflect on the field of social organizations, specifically in relation to volunteer management, because, as was already mentioned, these institutions have experienced difficulties in recruiting and retaining their volunteers.

Therefore, this paper will attempt to know if this instrument, applied quantitatively for the first time, can identify the reasons for joining, staying and quitting nonprofit organizations, as well as volunteers' expectations towards it. The organization chosen to be the environment for this research was Pastoral da Criança - a Brazilian NGO -, for it gathers nearly 240.000 volunteers, but also because of the high degree of turnover among their volunteers.

This text follows this structure: in the next section, some aspects related to volunteer work are presented, which is followed by a discussion on models of analysis of volunteer motivation. Then, the methodological attributes applied to research are discussed. The data collected and the findings of this study are content of the next topic. Finally, the conclusions on the analysis developed and the references which supported the theoretical and methodological structure of this research are presented.

1 PASTORAL DA CRIANÇA

The idea was born in 1982 during a United Nations (UN) meeting on world peace, when the executive director of the United Nations Children's Fund [UNICEF] , James Grant, suggested to Cardinal Paulo Evaristo that the Church create a project in order to fight infant mortality. (PASTORAL DA CRIANÇA, 2010).

The Cardinal proposed that his sister, Dr. Zilda Arns Neumann, draw up the project. Thus, in 1983, Pastoral da Criança (in English, Pastoral Care of the Child, from here on referred to only as Pastoral) was created as a pilot project in a parish in a city in the state of Parana. The results achieved after one year were outstanding and enabled the support of CNBB [National Conference of Bishops of Brazil] to the project. Despite being a body of social action within CNBB, the Pastoral was born to be ecumenical and remains open to all people and creeds. (PASTORAL DA CRIANÇA, 2010)

Pastoral operates all over the Brazilian territory and its scope is such that it gets to communities located in places that the State fails to reach. Today it has international prestige and is an model to over fifteen nations, sponsored by the UN (PASTORAL DA CRIANÇA, 2010).

Its main goal is to fully develop the child (from conception to age six) and, consequently, their families and communities. It leads the fight against infant mortality, malnutrition, domestic violence and social marginalization, strengthening the social fabric as well as family and community integration. Its activities are meant primarily for prevention, providing information on health, nutrition and citizenship, with simple and accessible language to vulnerable populations (PASTORAL DA CRIANÇA, 2010).

2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Volunteer Work

In the Brazilian Act 9608 of December 18^th, 1998, volunteering is defined as unpaid activity performed by an individual to the public entity of any kind, or private nonprofit organization, with civic, cultural, educational, scientific or recreational aim, or social assistance. It should be addesd that it does not imply employment or obligation to labor or social security.

Volunteers are therefore actors carrying out activities for the benefit of others, detached from financial reward. Marques (2006) defines volunteering as a set of actions developed by the volunteer, without any kind of financial or other material reward or compensation, assuming the individual's conscious, deliberate and free decision.

According to Shin and Kleiner (2003), the volunteer is an individual rendering service to a particular organization, without expecting monetary compensation. This kind of service benefits the volunteer and others. Therefore, volunteering dissociates from and goes beyond financial benefits and implies - essentially - the individual's spontaneous adhesion.

But what drives people to do volunteer work, that is, what are the motivating factors for this activity? In order to answer this question, some reflections are made in the following topic of this theoretical framework.

2.2 Motivation for Volunteer Work

People who do volunteer work claim different needs that are usually associated with values, beliefs, culture, lifestyle, among others. Therefore, investigating the understanding of the motivations that may lead an individual to devote time to an organization and stay in it is something relevant to the field of Third Sector Management and, in specific terms, to the studies of Organizational Behavior.

On evaluating the possible motivations of volunteer work, the Council of the Brazilian program Comunidade Solidária (Community Solidarity) (1997, as quoted in AZEVEDO, 2007), suggested - as a main motivation factor - the desire to improve the community and to promote a cause or help people who one doesn't even know. The common thread was the consolidation of an ethic of solidarity. The motivation of the volunteer would therefore be associated with solidarity, that is, being able to act on behalf of others.

Clary et al (1998) follow a functionalist perspective on motivation and classify motivations according to their function: a) values, that is, the opportunities for the volunteer to express their own values, altruism and humanism, b) understanding, that is, the opportunity to learn and exercise knowledge and skills, c) social function, opportunity to be with friends or make new friends; d) benefits, related to the career that can be achieved through voluntary work, and e) opportunities for self-esteem and ego.

In the study by Ferreira, Proença and Proença (2008) four relevant categories of motivations are identified: altruism, belonging, ego and social recognition, learning and development. In relation to altruism the desire to help others stands out; a sense of mission and desire to do something "worthwhile." The category of belonging is represented as making new friends, meeting people and being well accepted by the community. The rewards or benefits associated with volunteering, may also relate to the needs of the ego and social recognition.

Research by Feitosa and Silva (2002, as quoted in AZEVEDO, 2007) shows five distinct categories for the motivation of volunteers: a) Assistencial, meaning helping others because of their needs, b) Humanitarian, in the form of helping others; it may involve spiritual growth, c) Political related to the exercise of citizenship and emancipatory action, d) Professional, related to learning and using knowledge, obtaining work in NGOs, and e) Personal, related to therapeutic treatments, search for interpersonal relationship, and search for emotional compensation.

McCurley & Lynch (1998), in turn, rated the reasons for voluntary work in three categories: a) altruism - helping others, obligation to give something in exchange for something received, civic duty, religious belief, making a difference in the world, belief in the cause, b) self-interest - gaining experience, developing new skills, building friendships, making a good impression, feeling important and useful, showing leadership skills, experiencing new cultures and lifestyles, pleasure and joy, and c) family-related - bringing the family together, serving as an example, getting benefit and compensation to one's own, helping in return for help that a family member got.

The various authors here mentioned offer contributions and provide relevant definitions concerning the reasons for the exercise of voluntary work. Their propositions are similar to some extent and complement each other. Some of them share reasons such as: a) acting on behalf of others or of society, b) altruism; c) how to build relationships to meet new people and belong to groups, and d) developing knowledge and skills.

It is reasonable to say that a major reason for volunteering is to do something whose main goal is to benefit the community. Altruism and solidarity are evident as well as other important points such as belonging and developing interpersonal relationships, skills and expertise, gaining recognition and appreciation, and reaching fulfillment as an individual.

It was based on discussions such as these that Souza, Medeiros and Fernandes (2006) developed the model of the 5A's, by which they drew up a hierarchy of values related to volunteer work, defined at each level by the distinction of the value of the action and attitudes of the individuals. On the 5A's proposition of Hierarchy the following levels are covered:

Chart 2

The reasons range from the highest levels, focused on altruism, to the lowest, selfish, level.

Besides subjective reason, different and complementary degrees of substantive and instrumental rationality are related to the types of volunteer work, as suggested in Chart 3.

The actions that characterize the instrumental rationality take place based on the ends, on calculation, with the deliberate purpose of maximizing results. Otherwise, actions based on substantive rationality are related to ethical judgments, guided by values (RAMOS, 1989).

The scale levels, however, do not serve to qualify the value of volunteer work, but rather only to characterize the different profiles of individuals who go through it, based on the understanding that voluntary action is composed of some degree of selfishness (personal interest) - which should occur on a smaller scale - and a greater degree of altruism (devotion to another individual). Thus, the ideas of upper and lower levels only have a meaning when one recognizes the higher degree of altruism that should inspire voluntary action rather than lower degrees of selfishness.

It is therefore an exercise focused on organizational behavior that may be intended for retro feedback of anagement processes of voluntary action, involving the stages of recruitment, selection, training and organizational development.

3 METHODOLOGY

As to the objectives, this research is descriptive as it presents the analysis on the validity of a quantitative instrument that seeks to understand and describe reasons for volunteering in the Pastoral.

The instrument used in the process of data collection is based on theoretical ideas by Souza, Medeiros and Fernandes (2006) and is divided into four sections, each one of which attempting to determine the profile of the volunteer - Altruistic, Affectionate, Amiable, Adjusted and Astute - on the grounds of the reasons related to "joining" , "staying" and "quitting", as well as "expectations", with answers ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree".

The instrument used was constructed based on analysis carried out on the results obtained in the first phase of a research aimed to know the characters of volunteer work. This initial phase was qualitative and outlined the reasons (joining, affiliation, quitting), expectations and difficulties faced by volunteers. As a research strategy, a group interview was carried out.

The qualitative phase of the research was conducted among the population of volunteers of Pastoral in the districts of Ponta Negra (South Zone), Gramoré (North Zone), Planalto (West Zone) and Lagoa Nova (East Zone), in the capital city of Rio Grande do Norte, where 28 volunteers were interviewed. In that study, it was identified that the ultimate goal of the volunteers would be to promote the welfare of others, of the community and society; they were less concerned, therefore, with their own benefits and interests.

The results of the qualitative phase generated a number of reasons for joining, staying and quitting, as well as expectations. Among them, 10 indicators were chosen for joining, staying and expectations, and 14 indicators for the reasons for quitting. This decision sought to allow the generation of a quantitative instrument bringing together two indicators for each volunteer profile - Altruistic, Affectionate, Amiable, Adjusted and Astute. In the grounds of quitting there was no grouping by profile.

Seeking then to validate this instrument, the data were manipulated through the application of exploratory factor analysis, which is a statistical technique that attempts to identify the level of aggregation that occurs between variables or items in a research (HAIR et al., 1995), that is, in how many latent variables (dimensions) the items in a scale are grouped. In this study, the analysis had the following characteristics:

• Extraction Method: Analysis of Main Components, for the goal is to combine variables that explain the maximum variation of a factor; factors are not correlated. Here, indicators that explain characters that may be classified as Altruistic, Affectionate, Amiable, Adjusted and Astute.

• Criteria for selection of factors: Eigenvalue criterion, where only factors that have values greater than 1.0 were considered.

• Method of factor rotation: Varimax, for one seeks to separate variables by factor.

This theoretical effort then seeks to identify which indicators that are part of the survey instrument can be grouped in each profile - Altruistic, Affectionate, Amiable, Adjusted and Astute - as well as in each variable we are trying to identify: "expectations", "reasons for joining", "reasons for staying" and "the reasons for quitting". Thus, the investigation process was carried out at the headquarters of Pastoral located in João Pessoa (capital city of Paraíba) and Natal (capital city of Rio Grande do Norte). Altogether, 330 volunteers (from an estimated universe of 500), from 45 parishes of the two dioceses (João Pessoa/PB and Natal/RN), participated in the census-like survey.

4 RESULTS

At this stage the results of the analysis carried out will be presented, in order to assess the validity of the instrument created to identify the profiles of volunteers at Pastoral. Initially, the reliability and factor analysis tests will be presented, then the factor matrix for each variable: joining, staying, and quitting, as well as expectations.

4.1 Reliability and Adequacy of Factor Analysis

Here are the results of reliability and Exploratory Factor Analysis for the four variables. Initially Table 1 is shown, with the results of Cronbach's Alpha, of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy, and of Barlett's Test of Sphericity.

Reliability - Cronbach's Alpha - reached values between 0.7 and 0.8, which are good indicators, since this is the first version of the questionnaire. This means that the instrument measures satisfactorily what it set out to measure. For Hair et al. (1995) Alpha's lowest threshold is 0.70, reaching 0.60 in exploratory researches.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy, which indicates the degree of intercorrelations among the indicators, also came to a good number: 0.74, demonstrating that the sample used for research is suitable for factor analysis. For Hair et al. (1995) values below 0.50 may invalidate the results and samples with KMO at 0.80s are good, and at 0.70s are average. Yet, Barlett's test of sphericity showed that the correlation factor is significant. It can be said, then, with some certainty, that there are latent factors among the indicators, otherwise the indicators used to describe the motivation factors can form factors that would better explain this motivation, through the Altruistic, Affectionate, Amiable, Adjusted and Astute profiles.

4.2 Analysis of factor matrix for each variable - joining, expectation, staying and quitting.

This phase of the study sought to show how the reasons that lead an individual to join, stay and quit Pastoral are grouped. Despite the good results of reliability and factor analysis, none of the variables showed the expected combination of indicators X profile. Following are details of this finding.

Table 2

The factor analysis carried out by use of the method of main components showed that three factors explain the "joining", two explain the "expectations" and "staying" and four explain the "quitting", extracted with eigenvalue higher than 1.

Moreover, the explanation of each reason was always below 60%, reaching about 45% for the "expectations". "Quitting" had the greatest explanatory power, reaching 57%. This means that these factors lose between 40% and 55% of the explanatory power of the "reasons" and "expectations" of the volunteers at Pastoral.

Hair et al. (1995) points out that in social science it is common to consider 60% of the variation as satisfactory (in natural sciences, minimum values are at least 95%); however, this value was not reached.

Then, Table 3 shows the matrices with respective generated factors and factor loadings.

Table 3

From this matrix, resulting from Exploratory Factor Analysis, one can observe the grouping in each reason studied. As already seen in the preceding table, 2 to 4 factors were grouped.

The first reason (joining) grouped three factors. The first factor joined indicators that have more of "selfish" values, of instrumental rationality, for example, "I joined Pastoral to meet new people" and "I joined Pastoral to feel good". The second factor grouped indicators that tend towards more "altruistic" substantive rationality, such as "I joined Pastoral because I want a better world". The third factor generated shows indicators with selfish-life value.

As for the expectations from the work, it created two factors: one with "altruistic" values and another with "selfish" characteristics. The first grouped only two indicators: "I hope I can help mothers have a calm delivery and not abort" and "I hope I can heal children through my work at Pastoral". The second factor grouped the other eight indicators, with essentially selfish values, such as I hope that my work at Pastoral can help me better cope with children and I hope to gain knowledge from my work at Pastoral. However, it should be noted that as the loading factor of the indicators on this factor decreases, indicators with altruistic values appear, such as "I hope I can rescue human dignity through my work at Pastoral".

Regarding the reasons for "staying" two factors also emerged, with no clear difference in the grouping of indicators found; "altruistic" indicators mixed with "selfish" indicators. The first factor aggregated highly "altruistic" indicators such as "What keeps me at Pastoral is the love for others" and indicators with "selfish" value such as "I remain at Pastoral to transmit knowledge to families". The second joined highly "selfish" indicators such as "I remain at Pastoral because I have the opportunity to learn how to deal with children" and indicators with "altruistic" value such as "I remain at Pastoral because of the involvement with families and children".

Finally, on the grounds of quitting, 4 factors were grouped: one with "personal" reasons, "organizational", "religious", and the fourth factor, with only one indicator: "I would leave Pastoral due to health problems". The first grouped indicators such as "I would leave Pastoral due to lack of time". The second joined indicators such as "I would leave Pastoral due to lack of volunteers". The third contains indicators such as "I would leave Pastoral if I lost my faith in God".

The first two did not have pure grouping, for they joined indicators with common characteristics: despite being classified as "personal" reasons, they include statements with organizational content, such as "I would leave if there were changes in the operating structure of Pastoral". Similarly, the phenomenon repeats itself in the factor that was classified as "organizational" with "personal" indicators.

The following is a chart showing a summary of the number of factors and characteristics of each reason.

Thus it is clear that the factors were grouped generally around selfish and altruistic values. These results are in line with several studies on this issue, both nationally and internationally. In Brazil authors as Mendes (2008), Diez (2008), Vervloet (2009), Piccoli (2009), Ribeiro (2007), Fioravanti (2006), Ferrari and Tenório (2004), Souza and Carvalho (2006), Oliveira and Bezerra (2007), Souza, Lucas and Marques (2008), Morais, Mendes and Crubellate (2000) found either altruistic or selfish values, or a combination of these values in the samples.

Outside Brazil, authors as Soupourmas and Ironmonger (2001), Yeung (2004), Dolnicar and Randle (2007), Anderson and Shaw (1999), and Prouteau and Wolff (2007) also found similar results to those found in this research.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

This study aimed to present the results of validity after the first application of a quantitative instrument that aims to identify profiles of volunteers at Pastoral.

In this context, this instrument shows evidence that it is able to identify and differentiate profiles of volunteer workers in this area, since it has achieved good rates of reliability and adequacy of factor analysis. It has also reached results similar to those of studies carried out in Brazil and abroad. It should be noted that in Brazil, most studies use qualitative analysis, which can increase the importance of this instrument.

However, much remains to be done. Although we have been able to identify altruistic and selfish attitudes of volunteers in a satisfactory manner, the development of this instrument does not seek to be able to classify these attitudes in two distinct poles - egoism versus altruism - but in five, trying to prove what Souza, Medeiros and Fernandes (2006) devised.

In this sense, this study provides some directions. Firstly, there is a need to improve the semantic meaning of certain factors, or even increase the number of indicators so they can generate some correlation among them. The same must be done with the factor "expectations", for indicators with smaller loadings, of altruistic sense, can be grouped with others of selfish sense, or perhaps with other altruistic indicators, so that they can create other factors.

Secondly, improve the meaning of the indicators, especially in the grounds of "staying" should be another task, because the two factors created gathered altruistic and selfish indicators. In addition, four factors emerged in the grounds of "quitting", which were not conceptually anticipated. Therefore, understanding this evidence, could be another gap to be filled.

Therefore, it is recommended that further reviews of the literature on motivation in voluntary work be carried out, seeking conceptual foundations for the construction of new indicators and/or improvement of the semantic meaning of those used in this research, thus, refining this instrument for new application and new factor analysis, so that the statistical validation of this instrument may be possible.

Recebido em 28/08/2012

Aprovado em 28/02/2013

Disponibilizado em 01/12/2013

Avaliado pelo sistema double blind review

Revista Eletrônica de Administração

Editor: Luís Felipe Nascimento

ISSN 1413-2311 (versão on-line)

Editada pela Escola de Administração da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul.

Periodicidade: Quadrimestral

Sistema requerido: Adobe Acrobat Reader.

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1

Number based on figures of the Independent Sector website, 2009: US$ 20.85 per hour.

2

Qualis is the "set of procedures used by Capes to stratify the quality of intellectual production of graduate programs". (Capes, 2010) [our translation]

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  24 Feb 2014
• Date of issue
  Dec 2013

History

• Received
  28 Aug 2012
• Accepted
  01 Dec 2013
• Reviewed
  28 Feb 2013