Insecticide resistance of Stegomyia aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) population from Paranaguá a port city in southern Brazil

ABSTRACT

Stegomyia aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762) vectors arboviruses of public health concern in urban areas of tropical countries, so it is necessary to reduce its population. Among the control methods used, chemically synthesized molecules have been widely employed, nonetheless, the over usage of the same mechanism of action can result in the resistance selection. Considering the influence of insect resistance with the success of chemical control of vectors, this study aims to assess the susceptibility to organophosphorus of a population of S. aegypti from Paranaguá (Paraná, Brazil), after intense use of malathion during a dengue outbreak. World Health Organization susceptibility tests and expression of Acetylcholinesterase ace-1, cytochrome P₄₅₀ monooxygenase CYP6N12, and α-esterases CCEae3A genes were evaluated. The mortality rate of wild females (66.5%) indicated their resistance status, furthermore, a new discriminant concentration was detected in this population (3.41%). Exclusively CYP6N12 gene was overexpressed in malathion-resistant females indicating its possible contribution to the transformation of this insecticide. Constant monitoring of insecticide resistance of current and past molecules, mainly in port areas where there is a large flow of species, is crucial for effective use of insecticide in vector control programs.

KEY WORDS:
Acetylcholinesterase; Aedes; cytochrome P₄₅₀ monooxygenase; discriminant concentration; malathion; α-esterase

INTRODUCTION

Stegomyia aegypti (=Aedes aegypti) (Linnaeus, 1762) is a globally distributed specie known for its highly anthropophilic and synanthropic preferences. Its proliferation has been favored by factors such as global warming and specific socioeconomic conditions (Kraemer et al. 2015, Alaniz et al. 2018, Rios et al. 2023). Notably, S. aegypti is a significant vector of viruses of human concern, including dengue, Zika, chikungunya, and yellow urban fever. The primary approach to preventing diseases caused by these arboviruses relies on effective vector control since vaccines, although effective, are often in limited supply (Valle et al. 2019). Successful vector control hinges on effective monitoring and understanding the vector’s susceptibility to the chemical molecules used for its managment.

In 2016, Dengue outbreaks had a significant impact on the human populations of Paranaguá - Paraná (Brazil), resulting in approximately 15,538 cases and 29 deaths (SESA 2016). Additionally, there were nine autochthonous cases of chikungunya in 2016 and one case of Zika virus in 2017 (SESA 2021). To suppress mosquitos, several measures can be taken, including removing potential breeding sites, using bioinsecticides, and employing genetic tools. However, synthetic insecticides are still used to control the vector. Within conventional insecticides, organophosphorus based products have raised concern in different regions of the world due to the development of selective resistance in S. aegypti (Campos et al. 2020, Hayd et al. 2020, Hidajat et al. 2020, Leandro et al. 2020, Cattel et al. 2021).

Organophosphorus insecticides are widely known for their effectiveness in inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, disrupting neural impulses transmission. This disruption results in hyperexcitation of the nervous system, ultimately leading to the insect’s death (Ware and Whitacre 2004, Araújo et al. 2016). During the malathion metabolism, the cytochrome P₄₅₀ monooxygenases activate it to malaoxon, a more toxic compound than its parent and an irreversible AChE inhibitor (Feyereisen 1999, Scott 1999, Hemingway et al. 2004, Ware and Whitacre 2004). In addition to the cytochrome P₄₅₀ monooxygenases (P₄₅₀), other enzymes such as esterases (EST) and glutathione-S-transferases (GST) play crucial roles in the biotransformation of insecticides to prevent them from reaching the target site (Hemingway et al. 2004, Li et al. 2007, Moyes et al. 2017).

The extensive use of insecticides to reduce temporary vector populations has resulted in increased resistance among specimens, posing risks to human, animal, and environmental welfare (Valle et al. 2019, Nunes et al. 2021, van den Berg et al. 2021). Resistance has been identified throughout assays, including bottle assays and filter paper impregnaion (WHO 2022a, 2022b). Insecticide resistance can be attributed to mechanisms such as penetration barriers, behavioral adaptation, enhanced metabolic detoxification, or target site insensitivity (Siegfried and Scharf 2001, Hemingway et al. 2004, Moyes et al. 2017, Nunes et al. 2021, van den Berg et al. 2021). Metabolic resistance occurs when enzymes like P₄₅₀, GST, and EST increase their capacity to metabolize or sequester the insecticide before it reaches its target (Hemingway and Ranson 2000). Among these enzymes, P₄₅₀ notably overexpressed in individuals resistant to insecticides containing organophosphorus (Scott 1999). Certain P₄₅₀ genes of the CYP6 subfamily have been recurrently associated with insecticide resistance in mosquitoes (Lima et al. 2015). Furthermore, metabolic resistance to organophosphorus insecticide is associated with the overexpression of α-esterases, such as CCEae3a (Goindin et al. 2017, Marcombe et al. 2019).

Acetylcholinesterase acts on insecticide resistance through molecular and metabolic mechanisms (Labbé et al. 2007, Djogbénou et al. 2008, Edi et al. 2014). In Culicidae, mutations in the ace-1 gene - which codes for the target site of organophosphorus - have been associated with the selection of resistance to these compounds (Weill et al. 2002, 2004, Hemingway et al. 2004). Stegomyia aegypti, however, rarely has mutations in the ace-1 gene that considerably affect resistance to organophosphorus (Bisset et al. 2006, Mori et al. 2007, dos Santos et al. 2020). Despite that, enzyme activity and active site insensitivity to insecticides are still commonly evaluated (Viana-Medeiros et al. 2018, Valle et al. 2019).

Recognizing that monitoring through susceptibility bioassays and the identification of molecular mechanisms are essential to prevent or delay the resistance selection, and to preserve the effectiveness of active ingredients (Hemingway and Ranson 2000), in Paranaguá, home to one of the most important ports in Brazil (ANTA 2018, Portos do Paraná 2022), the intensive use of a single chemical compound to control the vector during a dengue epidemic exerted selection pressure on mosquitoes, particularly with regard to malathion. The knowledge of the state of resistance in situations like this is extremely relevant for future decision-making. This study aimed to evaluate the susceptibility to malathion of S. aegypti from Paranaguá after a dengue outbreak when chemical control was an intensive method to control the mosquito population. Furthermore, the study intended to evaluate the expression of genes such as acetylcholinesterase, cytochrome P₄₅₀ monooxygenase, and α-esterases, which are related to organophosphorus resistance.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study area

The municipality of Paranaguá is in the Southeastern of Paraná (PR), southern Brazil, at 25°31’12”S, 48°30’33”W, and 5 m asl, an area situated in the Atlantic Forest Biome (Mello et al. 2017) (Fig. 1 A). It has an extension of 826,431 km² and an estimated population of 145,829 inhabitants with a demographic density of 177.23 inhabitants per km² (IBGE 2022). The city hosts the Dom Pedro II Port - also named Porto de Paranaguá - where national and international cargoes are transported. It is Paraná’s main port and the third most important in Brazil (ANTA 2018, Portos do Paraná 2022). The study was carried out in this municipality in 2018, two years after the 2016 dengue epidemic, which had 15,538 confirmed cases that triggered 29 deaths. This public health situation led to the intensive use of malathion, a product recommended from 2010 to 2019 by the Ministry of Health, to carry out adult control of the vector (Brazil 2009).

Figure 1
(A) Location of the city of Paranaguá, and (B) location of ovitraps containing the eggs obtained during the June 2018 monitoring cycle in the city. Colors depict the representativeness of each point in the establishment of the S. aegypti insectary used to obtain the F₁ and F₂ generations.

Field collection

Stegomyia aegypti females were obtained from eggs collected in June 2018 using the ovitrap proposed by Fay and Eliason (1966), which consists of a 900 mL black container containing 250 mL of tap water and an oviposition substrate of wooden reed of 14 cm × 3 cm (Duratree). This field collect was part of the monthly monitoring cycles carried out in the municipality from 2017 to 2018 that included the evaluation of 331 ovitraps installed in house gardens, where they remained for four days. Thus, F₁ and F₂ generations were obtained from 30 ovitraps selected randomly in the June 2018 (Fig. 1 B) aiming to include the genetic diversity of the population. This collection occurred after the application of malathion at ultra-low volume (approximately 4200 L) by the Ministry of State Health along with the Paranaguá Municipal Health Administration as an activity of the integrated vector management program to reduce the vector density since it was increasing in the city. Eggs were counted and fully grown in the Laboratory of Morphology and Physiology of Culicidae and Chironomidae (LAMFIC²) at the Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná.

Mosquito rearing

In order to maintain the genotypic variability and ensure spatial representation of the local population, eggs from more than 30 ovitraps were used to make an insectary, as recommended by the WHO (2016). To establish an insectary, adults of S. aegypti were placed in cages kept in a room at 25 ± ٣ °C, 70% of RH, under natural light and fed a 10% honey sugar solution. In addition, they were supplied with blood from a Swiss strain of mice twice a week for 10 minutes under the authorization of the Ethics Committee on Animal Experimentation (UFPR #719). Females laid eggs on filter papers partially submerged in water. The filter papers were collected twice a week, dried at room temperature for 24 hours, and packed in paper bags.

Second generation adult females (F₂) were used to perform susceptibility bioassays and the gene expression study. As a reference, Rockefeller mosquitoes’ strain was used in all experiments (Kuno 2010). This strain was obtained from the Laboratory of Physiology and Control of Arthropod Vector (Laficave) at Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, and has been kept in LAMFIC² under the aforementioned conditions for the establishment of the insectary.

WHO bioassays

Insecticide sensitivity tests were performed using the World Health Organization (WHO) filter paper method (WHO 2009). Whatman^® grade 1 filter papers (12 × 12 cm) were impregnated with malathion 98%, diethyl 2-[(dimethoxyphosphorothioyl)sulfanyl]butanedioate - Pestanal^® (CAS: 121-75-5, lot number BCBS8709V with expiration date August 2021 Sigma-Aldrich) and organic extra virgin olive oil (0.91 g L^-1) was used as a carrier and diluent to obtain the desired insecticide concentration. The olive oil and insecticide mixture were weighed for density adjustment, then, in order to achieve uniform distribution, the same volume of acetone was added before the paper impregnation. Filter papers impregnated exclusively with olive oil and acetone were used as a control group. After impregnation, which was performed using a pipette, the filter papers were dried in the dark for 24 hours, then stored individually in aluminum foil at 4 °C until use.

Discriminating concentration of malathion and bioassays

The discriminating concentration (DC) of 0.8%, as recommended by the WHO (2016) did not result in mortality of S. aegypti females of the Rockefeller strain. For this reason, a new DC was determined to be twice the LC₉₉ (lethal concentration) of the susceptible strain, following the guidelines established by the WHO (2016). The concentration-response curve was estimated with the following quantities of malathion impregnated in the filter papers: 20 µg cm^-2 (0.8%), 25 µg cm^-2 (1.1%), 32.5 µg cm^-2 (1.3%), 35 µg cm^-2 (1.4%), and 35.5 µg cm^-2 (1.42%). The DC was estimated by analyzing the mortality data through Probit regression using the “ecotoxicology” package (Gama 2015) in the R software (v.3.0.1) (R Core Team 2018).

The mortality bioassay was carried out according to the WHO (2016) guidelines. Groups of 20 to 25 susceptible 3-4 days-old, non-blood fed females were inserted into tubes containing the malathion-impregnated paper and held for one hour. The tubes were placed horizontally in a dark chamber. After insecticide exposure, the females were transferred by being gently blown into a resting tube containing a clean filter paper, which was placed vertically into a BOD-type chamber under a photoperiod of 12:12, room temperature of 26 ± 2 °C, and average relative humidity of 72 ± 3%. The mosquitoes were fed a 10% honey sugar solution. Mortality rate was evaluated after 24 hours of exposure. At least 100 females, including the control groups, were exposed to each concentration.

Susceptibility bioassays with the S. aegypti population from Paranaguá were carried out both with the new DC of 85.25 µg cm^-2 (3.41%) and a concentration of 125 µg cm^-2 (5%), in compliance with the WHO (2016) guidelines. A total of 1,197 F₂ females were exposed to the new DC and 321 to the control. Similarly, 55 females of the Rockefeller strain were exposed to the new DC and 23 to the control. For the second bioassay, 290 females from the Paranaguá F₂ colony were exposed to the 5% concentration of malathion (125 µg cm^-2), whereas 75 were exposed to the control paper. In the case of the Rockefeller strain, 81 females were exposed to the same concentration. Finally, 154 of them were exposed to the control. Paranaguá and Rockefeller females that survived after 24 hours of exposure were frozen and stored at -80 °C to ensure the integrity of the nucleic acids to be later processed in the molecular experiments.

CCEae3A, CYP6N12, and ace-1 expression levels

Total RNA was extracted from female of S. aegypti individual using the RNeasy^® Mini Kit (Qiagen) extraction kit, which was eluted in 30 µL of RNase-free water and treated with Deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I) (Sigma Aldrich), according to the instructions provided by the manufacturer. RNA quantification and purity analysis were carried out using a Nanodrop^TM 2000 spectrophotometer, and integrity was evaluated using a 1% agarose gel. After treatment, the samples were quantified again by fluorescence in a Quantus^TM Fluorometer (Promega) using the QuantiFluor^® dsDNA System kit (Promega), as recommended by the manufacturer. Complementary DNA (cDNA) synthesis was performed using the High-Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription Kit^® (Thermo Fisher Scientific) also in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. The samples were stored in a freezer at -20 °C.

The expression levels of α-esterase (CCEae3A), P₄₅₀ (CYP6N12), and acetylcholinesterase (ace-1) genes of S. aegypti females were evaluated using the oligonucleotides shown in Table 1. Their access codes in GenBank are AAEL005112 (α-esterase), AAEL009124 (P₄₅₀), AAEL000511 (ace-1), as well as AAEL011197 (actin 5C) and AAEL004175 (Ribossomal Protein S17 40S) for the housekeeping genes.

Table 1
Forward and reverse primers are used to quantify S. aegypti gene expression by real-time polymerase chain reaction with amplicon size, hybridation region, efficiency, and R² values.

Enzyme	Gene	Primers (5’-3’)	Amplicon (pb)	Hybridation	Efficiency (%)	R2
Acetilcolinesterase	ace-1	F-GCAATCGGGATGCATTGGAC	81	Exon 7	101.8	0.98
		R-CTGCATATCGCTGGGCAAAC		Exon 7
Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase	CYP6N12	F-GATCAATGTATCAACGAGTCCC	165	Exon 1-2	96.6	0.99
		R-GGGATAGTATTCTGCGTCGT		Exon 2
α-esterase	CCEae3A	F-GCAATATGTCAGTCGGGAGT	129	Exon 1	100.6	0.99
		R-GAGGGTTTCGTAAATTTCATCATCG		Exon 1-2
Actin 5C	Act-5C	F-CGTTCGTGACATCAAGGAAA	175	Exon 2	97.3	0.99
		R-GAACGATGGCTGGAAGAGAG		Exon 2
Ribosomal Protein S17 40S	RPS17	F-AAGAAGTGGCCATCATTCCA	200	Exon 2	100.4	0.98
		R-GGTCTCCGGGTCGACTTC		Exon 3

The gene expression of 24 females that survived exposure to malathion DC (T1) was compared with those of the control groups. One of the control groups consisted of 10 unexposed females of the Rockefeller strain (C1_R). The second group comprised 14 unexposed females from Paranaguá (C2_Pr). Lastly, the third control group included 10 females from Paranaguá that were exposed to the filter paper impregnated with acetone and olive oil (C3_Pr).

Reactions of qPCR were performed in 10 µL of final volume, using 1 ng of cDNA, 5 µL of PowerUp SYBR Green Master Mix^® solution (Thermo Fisher Scientific), 0.8 µM of forward primer, 0.8 µM of reverse primer, and 1.4 µL of ultrapure water (Milli-Q). Samples were analyzed using a Rotor Gene Q5 Plex thermocycler (Qiagen). The temperature ramp was applied as follows: two minutes of waiting at 50 °C, two minutes of initial denaturation at 95 °C, 40 cycles of 15 seconds at 95 °C, hybridization for 15 seconds at 53 °C, and extension for 60 seconds at 72 °C. The efficiency of the qPCR reaction was evaluated using a dissociation curve, 0.8 µM of each primer, and a gradient of cDNA concentrations with a 1:5 serial dilution. All qPCR reactions were performed in triplicate, including a control reaction (ultrapure water). The acceptable difference in cycle threshold (Cts) between the replicates was at most 0.5 (Bio-Rad 2013). Relative gene expression was estimated using the 2^-ΔΔCT comparative method between target genes and assuming a reaction efficiency of 100% between genes (Livak and Schmittgen 2001). The method was adapted to the housekeeping genes actin-1 and ribosomal protein S17 (Riedel et al. 2014, Dzaki et al. 2017).

Outliers from the gene expression data were removed using the Outlier calculator GraphPad software and a significance level of α = 0.05. Statistical analyses were performed using the GraphPad Prism v. 5.0 software. The distributions of the expression data were observed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, which considers the residual value of the regression results (Massey 1951). Comparison between groups was performed using the nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test to identify any significant differences between median values of the groups (Kruskal and Wallis 1952). And Dunn’s post hoc test was used to detect which specific median value was significant from the others according to a pair-wise comparison (Dunn 1961). The level of significance was α = 0.05.

RESULTS

Malathion discriminating concentration.

The mortality rate of the Rockefeller strain females is shown in Table 2.

Table 2
Mortality rate of S. aegypti females of the Rockefeller strain exposed to malathion concentrations ranging from 0.8% to 1.42%.

Malathion quantity		Female response
µg cm-2	%	Alive	Dead	Total	Mortality rate (%)
20.0	0.80	109	26	135	19.3
25.0	1.10	139	131	270	48.5
32.5	1.30	31	94	125	75.2
35.0	1.40	6	141	147	95.9
35.5	1.42	7	135	142	95.1
Control	0	119	0	119	0

The amount of malathion necessary to kill 99% (LC₉₉) Rockefeller females was 42.7 µg a.i cm^-2 (1.7%) (Table 3). The mortality curve and the upper and lower limits of the response to malathion concentrations are shown in Fig. 2. The control group mortality rate was less than 5%, hence no data were adjusted to perform the susceptibility test (Silva et al. 2007).

The estimated discriminating concentration was 3.41%, which corresponds to 85.25 µg cm^-2 of active ingredient.

Figure 2
Mortality curve showing the upper and lower limits for each concentration of malathion exposure for S. aegypti of the Rockefeller strain.

Table 3
Response to malathion concentration in virgin Rockefeller females. (N) Number of females used in the bioassay, (SD) standard deviation, (LC) lethal concentration, (CI) confidence interval; (χ ² ) chi-square, (DF) degree of freedom.

Strain	N	Slope (SD)	LC99(CI95) µg cm-2%		χ2	DF	p-value
Rockefeller	819	8.184 ± 0.64	42.70 (38.00-51.20)	1.70 (1.50-2.00)	3.22	3	0.64

Resistance of S. aegypti from Paranaguá to malathion

In total, 1,518 adult females collected in 2018 in Paranaguá were exposed to malathion at concentrations of 3.41% and 5%, which caused a mortality rate of 66.5% and 96.89%, respectively (Table 4). This result indicates that, considering the WHO criteria, the S. aegypti population in Paranaguá is resistant to malathion (WHO 2016). Rockefeller females exhibited a 100% mortality rate, as expected.

Table 4
Mortality of virgin females of S. aegypti of both the Rockefeller strain and the Paranaguá population (F₂) after exposure to 3.41% and 5% of malathion using the WHO filter paper method.

Female origin	Concentration	Female response	N	Total	Mortality (%)
Paranaguá (F2)	3.41 %	Alive	401	1197	66.5
		Dead	796
	0 %	Control	317	317	0.01
Rockefeller	3.41%	Alive	0	55	100.0
		Dead	55
	0 %	Control	23	23	0
Paranaguá (F2)	5.00 %	Alive	9	290	96.9
		Dead	281
	0 %	Control	75	75	0
Rockefeller	5.00 %	Alive	0	81	100.0
		Dead	81
	0 %	Control	154	154	0.01

Gene expression

Gene expression levels of ace-1 and α-esterase from females in the resistant population (T1) showed no difference when compared to those in the control groups (C1_R, C2_Pr, and C3_Pr) (Fig. 3 A, 3B), indicating that these enzymes remained unchanged after malathion exposure. Gene expression in the control groups of Paranaguá females (C2_Pr and C3_Pr) and the Rockefeller strain (C1_R) did not differ.

Figure 3
Relative gene expression of the (A) acetylcholinesterase (ace-1), (B) α-esterase (CCEae3A), and (C) cytochrome P₄₅₀ (CYP6N12) genes in S. aegypti females. C1_R: Rockefeller control group (n=10); C2_Pr: Paranaguá control group (n=14); C3_Pr: Paranaguá solvent control group (n=10); T1: Paranaguá resistant females after exposure to malathion at a concentration of 3.41% (n=24). Data are presented as median ± interquartile range. Different letters indicate significant difference at p < 0.05, according to Dunn’s post hoc tests.

The gene expression of cytochrome P₄₅₀ monooxygenase from females exposed to malathion (T1) was higher when compared to unexposed females (C2_Pr) (Fig. 3 C). The gene expression of females of the Paranaguá control groups (C2_Pr and C3_Pr) and the Rockefeller strain (C1_R) were similar.

DISCUSSION

This study shows a new discriminating concentration established under laboratory conditions for malathion and the insecticide susceptibility results for the S. aegypti females from Paranaguá collected in 2018. The DC obtained (3.41%) was 4.25-fold higher than that recommended by the WHO (0.8% and 1.5%) (WHO 1992, 2016, 2022a). The low mortality rate of S. aegypti females when exposed to a 0.8% concentration of malathion was also observed by Macoris (Macoris et al. 2007). Probably due to the low or null response, several studies have used a DC of 5%, which is recommended for monitoring malathion susceptibility in Anopheles females (Ocampo et al. 2011, Arslan et al. 2016, Kamgang et al. 2017, Bharati and Saha 2018, Soni et al. 2018). In any case, the estimated DC in this study was different from that of others (Karunaratne et al. 2013, Hayd et al. 2020).

In addition to presenting suitable weather conditions for the vector development, (Vanhoni and Mendonça 2008), Paranaguá has a constant flow of national and international transport by land and sea, which allows the genetic flow of the species - including those with some degree of resistance to malathion (Diaz-Nieto et al. 2016, De Sá et al. 2019, Díaz-Maitra et al. 2019, Schmidt et al. 2019), as already described in other cities in the state of Paraná (Campos et al. 2020, Leandro et al. 2020).

Although this study did not aim to evaluate S. aegypti’s gene flow, it may have influenced the resistance phenotype of this vector in Paranaguá, as well as the selection pressure resulted from the chemical control practices implemented to prevent the transmission of the arbovirus (Valle et al. 2019). Likewise in 2015 and 2016, the chemical control practices in Paranaguá increased due to the occurrence of a dengue epidemic that caused many infections and deaths in the local population (SESA 2016). This epidemic event confirms the challenges faced in effectively controlling vector populations (Smith et al. 2012, Achee et al. 2015), leading to intensive insecticide application (Garcia et al. 2018, Leandro et al. 2020).

The lack of data on the susceptibility status of the S. aegypti population in Paranaguá before and during the epidemic of dengue did allow us to establish a correlation between the effect of chemical control and the frequency of resistant mosquitoes in the city. Thus, this is the first time that the malathion susceptibility of the S. aegypti population was studied after the epidemic that occurred in Paranaguá during 2015 and 2016 (SESA 2016, Brazil 2020).

Stegomyia aegypti resistance to malathion has been reported in other cities in the state of Paraná, including Foz do Iguaçu, Londrina, and Maringá (Campos et al. 2020, Leandro et al. 2020). This resistance has also been suggested for the cities of Paranavaí and Francisco Beltrão (Campos et al. 2020). This situation reinforces the need to reduce the vector’s chemical control and to prioritize other prevention and control methods that reduce risks to the animal, human, and environmental welfare (Nunes et al. 2021).

The gene expression in resistant females exhibited an increase in cytochrome P₄₅₀ monooxygenase (CYP6N12) as a response to malathion exposure, whereas α-esterase and ace-1 showed no significant alterations. The over expression of CYP6N12 may be related to a metabolic alteration either in the desulfuration reaction to form an active oxon metabolite that is the anticholinesterase compound, or in the dearylation reaction to form an inactive metabolite (Phosphorothioate) (Buratti et al. 2005, Krieger 2010). Also, increased CYP6N12 expression could be associated with gene amplification (Bariami et al 2012, Vlogiannitis et al. 2021).

Increased P₄₅₀ expression was observed following exposure to organophosphorus, pyrethroids, and neonicotinoids (Strode et al. 2012, Vontas et al. 2012, Riaz et al. 2013, Reid et al. 2014, Saavedra-Rodriguez et al. 2019). In contrast to our findings, a malathion-resistant S. aegypti population from Recife, northeastern Brazil, exhibited no changes in P₄₅₀ expression (Thornton et al. 2020). However, a malathion susceptible and temephos resistant population - previously selected in laboratory for 20 generations - exhibited overexpression of the same P₄₅₀ gene evaluated in our study (Strode et al. 2012). The expression of other P₄₅₀ genes - such as CYP6M11, CYP9J28, and CYP6BB2 - has also been associated with organophosphorus resistance (Goindin et al. 2017, Thornton et al. 2020).

Considering the involvement of the cytochrome P₄₅₀ monooxygenase in the resistance to pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, and organophosphorus (Strode et al. 2012, Vontas et al. 2012, Riaz et al. 2013, Reid et al. 2014, Saavedra-Rodriguez et al. 2019), the overexpression of this enzyme in the S. aegypti population from Paranaguá can also be related to pyrethroid resistance, which is reinforced by the domestic use of pyrethroids. Pyrethroids and neonicotinoids are commercially available, which makes their domestic use for vector control accessible (SESA 2019, Valle et al. 2019, Paraná 2020).

In the current study was not identified an overexpression of α-esterase, although resistance due to increased esterase metabolism caused by point mutations in the gene are very frequent in malathion-resistant mosquitoes (Hemingway 2000, Hemingway et al. 2004). Considering the overexpression mechanism, our results suggest low or no α-esterase participation in malathion resistance in the Paranaguá population. However, it is possible that another esterase-related mechanism may be related to the studied population’s resistance.

Paranaguá resistant females showed no variations in ace-1 expression, contrary to the results observed in Culex and Anopheles mosquitoes (Labbé et al. 2007, Djogbénou et al. 2008, Edi et al. 2014). Mutations in the ace-1 gene involved in resistance mechanisms to organophosphorus in S. aegypti are seldom reported (Bisset et al. 2006, Mori et al. 2007, dos Santos et al. 2020).

This study highlights the need to monitor insecticide resistance as a strategy to mitigate the adverse effects of chemical control, as well as the need to prevent the occurrence of health problems caused by arboviruses.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors thank Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPQ processes 440385/2016-4, 3122872020/8), and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES process 88881.130794/2016), and Instituto Nacional de Ciências e Tecnologias Analíticas Avançadas (CNPq process 465768/2014-8). This study was performed under the authorization of the Ethics Committee on Animal Experimentation (UFPR, #719). The authors take responsibility for any improprieties in the proficiency of the language used in the text, and thank the Academic Publishing Advisory Center (Centro de Assessoria de Publicação Acadêmica, http://www.capa.ufpr.br/portal/) of the Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR) for assistance with English language developmental editing.

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ADDITIONAL NOTES

• ZooBank register

  https://zoobank.org/57C89880-A2C6-4B3C-A689-45D35AC6BF3C

• How to cite this article

  Schuartz V, Palacio-Cortés AM, Grassi MT, Acero-Sandoval MA, Navarro-Silva MA (2023) Insecticide resistance of Stegomyia aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) population from Paranaguá a port city in southern Brazil. Zoologia 41: e23016. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1984-4689.v41.e23016

• Published by

  Sociedade Brasileira de Zoologia at Scientific Electronic Library Online (https://www.scielo.br/zool)

Edited by

Editorial responsibility

Sionei R. Bonatto

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  05 Feb 2024
• Date of issue
  2024

History

• Received
  06 Apr 2023
• Accepted
  22 Sept 2023