Negro et al. (2002)73
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110 experienced Kardecists mediums (for 21 years on average) |
Self-report questionnaires (SRQs) evaluating personality traits (happiness, sociability, religiosity, temper, mediumship) and dissociative experiences (Dissociative Experiences Scale – DES) |
Correlation analysis between dissociation scores and sociability and adaptation scores. Correlation analysis between training in mediumship and control of dissociative experiences |
Sociability and adaptation scores compatible with normality despite high dissociation scores. Majority (94%) considered to have control over the mediumistic experience. Positive correlation between formal training in mediumship and control of dissociative experiences |
Moreira-Almeida (2004)29
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115 Kardecist active mediums (for 16 years on average) and 34 subjects without previous or current mental disorder |
Semi-structured interviews and self-report questionnaires assessing: socio-demographic data, mental health and phenomenology of dissociative experiences |
Comparison of prevalence of hallucinatory experiences between groups. Correlation analysis between dissociative symptoms scores and intensity of mediumistic activity with mental health scores and social adequacy |
Higher prevalence of hallucinatory experiences in mediums, with normal levels of social adequacy. There was no correlation between the intensity of mediumistic activity and mental health scores and social adequacy |
Seligman (2005)14
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Five groups: –11 female Candomblé mediums –10 non-medium initiates, –20 uninitiated religious frequenters, –20 control participants from outside the religion, matched for socio-economic status, – 10 control participants from outside the religion and from a higher socioeconomic status |
–Instrument to screen for anxiety and depression (QMPA) –State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) –Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) – Semi-structured interviews |
Comparison between mediums and nonmediums with varying degrees of proximity to Candomblé and the mediumship role |
Group from higher socioeconomic status with significantly lower levels of anxiety and depression (QMPA). Significantly higher number of somatic symptoms reported by mediums. No difference between groups for STAI scores. DES scores higher in the 3 religious groups (none above clinical cut-off). No correlation between mediumship and DES score |
Moreira-Almeida et al. (2008)26
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24 Kardecist active mediums, being 12 mediums with (+) scores in the screening for mental disorders in primary care [SRQ +] and 12 mediums with (-) scores [SRQ -] 166 patients with Dissociative Identity Disorder – DID (data from this group was extracted from literature) |
Self-report questionnaire assessing social adequacy, psychotic symptoms and structured interviews with mediums to evaluate diagnostic criteria for DID |
Comparison between subgroups of mediums. Comparison between mediums and patients with DID |
From the mediums, no one met criteria for DID. The only difference observed among the subgroups of mediums was social adaptation [slightly worse in SRQ (+)]. No difference between the group of mediums and DID group for psychotic symptoms, but better mental health and social adjustment in mediums |
Roxburgh & Roe (2011)25
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80 British spiritualist mediums and 79 control subjects (non-mediums, attended the same religion, without any diagnosed mental disorder) |
Self-report questionnaires assessing personality traits and mental health indicators |
Comparison between mediums and control group (healthy individuals from the same socio-cultural context) |
Mediums scored significantly higher in well-being and lower in psychological stress. There were no significant differences among groups regarding dissociation or personality traits that could indicate psychopathology or proneness to fantazise |
Menezes Jr. et al. (2012)2
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115 individuals seeking help in spiritual centers due to their so-called mediumistic experiences |
Semi-structured interview with a psychologist to evaluate socio-demographic data, mental health history and dissociative experiences |
Qualitative exploration to assess the presence or not of nine criteria considered suggestive of non-pathological anomalous experiences (AEs) |
The most frequent AEs were visual (63%) and hearing (54%) hallucinations and “perception of spirit” (53%) For most of mediums, AE did not bring socio-occupational losses, were brief, episodic and benefic; but 59.2% related them with emotional distress and 54.8% did not present control over experiences |
Alminhana et al. (2013)27
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115 individuals seeking help in spiritual centers due to their so-called mediumistic experiences |
Self-report questionnaires to assess personality traits, quality of life and religiosity |
Comparison between experimental group, general population and individuals with mental disorders (data of control groups extracted from literature) |
Individuals with AE presented intermediate scores on personality traits, religiosity and quality of life when compared with general population and individuals with mental disorders. Authors hypothesized that mediums may be a population at higher risk for mental disorders |