Impacts of grade configuration on Brazilian student outcomes

Wink Junior, Marcos Vinicio; Paese, Luis Henrique Zanandréa; Griebeler, Marcelo de Carvalho

doi:10.5935/0034-7140.20210006

Marcos Vinicio Wink Junior marcos.winkjunior@udesc.br

Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC), Centro de Ciências da Administração e Socioeconômicas (Esag), Departamento de Ciências Econômicas. Avenida Madre Benvenuta 2037, Itacorubí, Florianópolis, SC, CEP 88035-001, Brasil

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2206-5211

Luis Henrique Zanandréa Paese luishzp@hotmail.com

Centro Administrativo Sicredi. Avenida Assis Brasil, Jardim Lindoia, Porto Alegre, RS, CEP 91060-900, Brasil

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8639-9459

Marcelo de Carvalho Griebeler marcelo.griebeler@ufrgs.br

Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Faculdade de Ciências Econômicas, Departamento Economia e Relações Internacionais. Avenida João Pessoa 52, Centro Histórico, Porto Alegre, RS, CEP 90040-000, Brasil

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7943-4802

marcos.winkjunior@udesc.br

luishzp@hotmail.com

marcelo.griebeler@ufrgs.br

	Score of 5th-graders in Portuguese Language	Score of 5th-graders on Mathematics	Average passing rate in elementary school	Average dropout rate in elementary school
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Epanechnikov Kernel (bandwidth =0.06)	4.25 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.55)	>5.09 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.56)	2.46 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.19)	-0.52 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.05)
Nearest Neighbor without replacement	3.19 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.25)	3.57 ^ significant at 5%; (0.27)	1.30 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.09)	-0.15 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.03)
Nearest Neighbor with replacement	3.09 ^* Notes: 29,963 observations. Standard errors in parentheses. *significant at 10%. (1.62)	4.01 ^ significant at 5%; (1.67)	2.31 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.60)	-0.36 ^ significant at 5%; (0.17)
Nearest 10 Neighbors with replacement	3.19 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.84)	3.78 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.85)	2.16 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.30)	-0.42 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.08)
Caliper 0.1	4.58 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.45)	5.46 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.46)	2.50 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.16)	-0.50 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.04)
Caliper 0.01	3.31 (0.85)	3.97 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.87)	2.19 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.30)	-0.43 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.08)
Caliper 0.001	3.38 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.60)	3.96 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.61)	2.30 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.21)	-0.42 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.06)
Caliper 0.0001	2.96 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.44)	3.41 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.46)	2.09 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.16)	-0.39 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.04)

	Scholar achievement reinforcement policy	Approval enhancement policy	Dropout reduction policy	Extracurricular activity policy
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Epanechnikov Kernel (bandwidth =0.06)	0.01 (0.01)	0.11 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.25 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.05 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)
Nearest Neighbor without replacement	0.03 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.13 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.28 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.04 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)
Nearest Neighbor with replacement	-0.01 (0.02)	0.07 ^ significant at 5%; (0.04)	0.28 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.04)	0.06 ^* * significant at 10%. (0.03)
Nearest 10 Neighbors with replacement	0.00 (0.01)	0.11 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.02)	0.24 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.02)	0.06 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.02)
Caliper 0.1	0.01 ^* * significant at 10%. (0.01)	0.11 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.25 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.05 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)
Caliper 0.01	0.00 (0.01)	0.11 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.02)	0.23 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.02)	0.06 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.02)
Caliper 0.001	0.00 (0.01)	0.11 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.25 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.05 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)
Caliper 0.0001	0.01 ^* * significant at 10%. (0.01)	0.11 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.26 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.04 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)

	At least 90% of teachers with tenure	Teacher training programs	School board meeting at least quarterly	Average class size
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Epanechnikov Kernel (bandwidth =0.06)	0.10 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.05 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	-0.02 (0.01)	-1.39 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0,15)
Nearest Neighbor without replacement	0.15 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	0.04 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.01)	-0.05 (0.01)	-0,08 (0,07)
Nearest Neighbor with replacement	0.13 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.03)	0.06 ^* * significant at 10%. (0.03)	-0.05 (0.03)	-1.30 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.43)
Nearest 10 Neighbors with replacement	0.09 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.02)	0.06 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.02)	-0.03 (0.02)	-1.47 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.23)

	Treated	Control	t-statistic after balancing
Dummy representing the location of the school	0.913	0.914	0.646
Dummy representing the administration of the school	0.864	0.862	0.563
Dummy representing the choice of the principal	0.482	0.465	0.001
Percentage of principals with a postgraduate degree	0.828	0.807	0
Percentage of teachers with a postgraduate degree	0.045	0.052	0
Mean years of experience of the principals	4.574	4.794	0
Mean years of experience of the teachers	13.979	14.125	0.006
Mean teachers'income	2,151	2,135	0.148
Dummy of Socioeconomic Level 1	0.003	0.003	0.951
Dummy of Socioeconomic Level 2	0.042	0.042	0.819
Dummy of Socioeconomic Level 4	0.284	0.281	0.586
Dummy of Socioeconomic Level 5	0.383	0.386	0.672
Dummy of Socioeconomic Level 6	0.112	0.112	0.897
Dummy of Socioeconomic Level 7	0.001	0.001	0.177
Per capita GDP	25,908	26,497	0.009

	Score of 5th-graders on Portuguese Language	Score of 5th-graders on Math	Average passing rate in elementary school	Average passing rate in elementary school
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Epanechnikov Kernel (bandwidth =0.06)	1.4-1.45	1.35-1.4	2.3-2.35	> 3
Nearest Neighbor without replacement	1.05-1.1	1.05-1.1	1.1-1.15	1
Nearest Neighbor with replacement	1.1-1.15	1.15-1.2	1.45-1.5	> 3
Nearest 10 Neighbors with replacement	1.2-1.25	1.15-1.2	2-2.05	> 3
Caliper 0.1	1.45-1.5	1.4-1.45	2.35-2.4	> 3
Caliper 0.01	1.25-1.3	1.2-1.25	2.1-2.15	> 3
Caliper 0.001	1.2-1.25	1.2-1.25	2-2.05	> 3
Caliper 0.0001	1.05-1.1	1.05-1.1	1.45-1.5	> 3

	Score of 5th-graders in Portuguese Language	Score of 5th-graders in Mathematics	Average passing rate in elementary school	Average dropout rate in elementary school
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Epanechnikov Kernel (bandwidth = 0.06)	6.47 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.64)	7.45 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.72)	2.63 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.19)	-0.57 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.06)
Nearest Neighbor without replacement	3.58 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.31)	4.42 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.35)	1.00 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.09)	-0.18 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.03)
Nearest Neighbor with replacement	3.95 ^ significant at 5%; (1.66)	5.31 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (1.88)	2.14 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.53)	-0.42 ^ significant at 5%; (0.17)
Nearest 10 Neighbors with replacement	5.47 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.99)	6.51 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (1.12)	2.60 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.31)	-0.51 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.10)
Caliper 0.1	6.64 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.52)	7.69 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.60)	2.58 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.16)	-0.56 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.05)
Caliper 0.01	4.83 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (1.18)	5.75 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (1.33)	2.43 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.35)	-0.48 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.11)
Caliper 0.001	4.76 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.83)	5.59 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.94)	2.34 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.25)	-0.44 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.08)
Caliper 0.0001	4.79 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.53)	5.48 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.60)	2.15 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.17)	-0.41 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.05)

	Score of 5th-graders in Portuguese Language	Score of 5th-graders in Mathematics	Average passing rate in elementary school	Average dropout rate in elementary school
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Epanechnikov Kernel (bandwidth =0.06)	2.73 ^ significant at 5%; (1.09)	3.46 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (1.30)	2.28 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.43)	-0.67 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.22)
Nearest Neighbor without replacement	0.82 (1.59)	0.57 (1.94)	2.34 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.65)	-0.66 ^ significant at 5%; (0.28)
Nearest Neighbor with replacement	-6.93 (4.27)	-6.80 ^* * significant at 10%. (3.79)	1.63 ^ significant at 5%; (1.63)	-0.59 (0.62)
Nearest 10 Neighbors with replacement	2.23 (1.75)	3.63 ^* * significant at 10%. (2.09)	1.42 ^ significant at 5%; (0.70)	-0.23 (0.27)
Caliper 0.1	2.88 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (1.10)	3.76 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (1.29)	2.22 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.43)	-0.67 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.22)
Caliper 0.01	1.82 ^* * significant at 10%. (1.09)	2.17 ^* * significant at 10%. (1.30)	2.14 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.44)	-0.68 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.22)
Caliper 0.001	1.39 (1.09)	1.50 (1.30)	2.03 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.44)	-0.65 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.22)
Caliper 0.0001	1.40 (1.09)	1.53 (1.30)	2.03 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.44)	0.66 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.22)

2 E {p^{'} (y_{j} (x; μ_{j})) {y^{'}}_{j} (x; μ_{j}) [μ - p (y_{j} (x; μ_{j}))]} = B_{x} (x; σ_{*}) .

	Elementary Schools					Elementary-middle Schools
	Obs (% within category)	Mean Score in Portuguese Language (Std.Dev)	Mean Score in Mathematics (Std.Dev)	Passing Rate (Std.Dev)	Dropout rate (Std.Dev)	Obs (% within category)	Mean Score in Portuguese Language (Std.Dev)	Mean Score in Mathematics (Std.Dev)	Passing Rate (Std.Dev)	Dropout rate (Std.Dev)
All Schools	16317 (53.86)	210.35 (20.10)	223.45 (22.49)	93.07 (6.78)	0.90 (2.03)	13979 (46.14)	205.60 (21.94)	217.88 (22.28)	91.55 (7.71)	1.16 (2.14)
State Schools	2214 (7.31)	217.54 (17.74)	230.78 (20.51)	95.85 (5.44)	0.63 (1.67)	4033 (13.31)	214.36 (17.13)	226.12 (17.85)	94.29 (6.98)	0.66 (1.87)
City Schools	14103 (46.55)	209.22 (20.21)	222.30 (22.58)	92.63 (6.87)	0.95 (2.08)	9946 (32.83)	202.05 (22.68)	214.55 (23.01)	90.44 (7.71)	1.36 (2.20)
Urban Schools	14876 (49.10)	211.93 (19.19)	224.94 (21.84)	93.38 (6.56)	0.87 (2.03)	11051 (36.48)	210.33 (19.15)	222.11 (20.15)	92.26 (7.30)	1.03 (1.99)
Country Schools	1441 (4.76)	194.00 (21.88)	207.99 (23.36)	89.90 (8.15)	1.26 (2.05)	2928 (9.66)	187.75 (22.63)	201.94 (22.69)	88.88 (8.57)	1.65 (2.54)
Socioeconomic Level 1	61 (0.20)	172.68 (21.26)	188.78 (21.24)	85.12 (10.13)	2.03 (2.35)	202 (0.67)	163.81 (14.20)	180.51 (11.60)	84.23 (10.21)	2.39 (2.95)
Socioeconomic Level 2	691 (2.28)	182.13 (18.23)	196.49 (20.17)	87.13 (8.84)	2.26 (2.97)	1304 (4.30)	181.87 (23.56)	197.00 (24.64)	88.02 (9.02)	2.02 (2.73)
Socioeconomic Level 3	2852 (9.41)	190.33 (16.12)	202.36 (17.28)	88.92 (7.94)	1.90 (2.63)	2905 (9.59)	190.12 (18.71)	203.16 (19.79)	88.69 (8.44)	2.11 (2.82)
Socioeconomic Level 4	4629 (15.28)	204.89 (14.23)	216.52 (16.79)	92.20 (6.67)	1.11 (2.05)	3072 (10.14)	203.51 (14.37)	214.74 (15.76)	91.16 (7.87)	1.28 (2.22)
Socioeconomic Level 5	6240 (20.60)	219.70 (11.65)	233.67 (15.00)	95.14 (4.91)	0.37 (1.51)	4701 (15.52)	215.37 (12.14)	227.09 (13.68)	93.38 (6.25)	0.56 (1.15)
Socioeconomic Level 6	1831 (6.04)	235.07 (10.52)	249.99 (13.92)	97.16 (2.92)	0.10 (0.36)	1767 (5.83)	230.36 (11.93)	242.11 (13.92)	95.39 (3.99)	0.20 (0.57)
Socioeconomic Level 7	13 (0.04)	251.09 (10.00)	266.78 (14.44)	98.45 (1.55)	0.00 (0.00)	28 (0.09)	244.70 (8.83)	257.92 (14.20)	98.51 (1.54)	0.04 (0.19)
North	1814 (5.99)	195.75 (17.86)	206.38 (18.69)	90.53 (7.05)	1.57 (2.13)	1398 (4.61)	186.73 (20.02)	198.70 (18.33)	86.84 (8.61)	2.47 (2.91)
Northeast	4486 (14.81)	192.86 (16.82)	204.05 (16.97)	88.57 (7.75)	1.99 (2.79)	4218 (13.92)	189.84 (20.81)	202.87 (21.53)	88.23 (8.38)	2.08 (2.82)
Southeast	6522 (21.53)	221.41 (13.47)	236.09 (16.07)	96.02 (4.86)	0.33 (1.43)	4078 (13.46)	218.00 (14.03)	230.47 (15.58)	94.84 (6.07)	0.56 (1.16)
South	2396 (7.91)	221.94 (13.78)	237.86 (16.46)	94.93 (4.24)	0.14 (0.38)	3208 (10.59)	217.58 (14.63)	229.66 (15.18)	93.01 (5.74)	0.34 (0.73)
Central-West	1099 (3.63)	214.86 (13.62)	224.34 (14.80)	94.09 (4.86)	0.46 (0.84)	1077 (3.55)	209.16 (13.95)	218.90 (14.51)	93.90 (6.14)	0.54 (1.03)

H_{y} (y_{j}) = 2 [p^{″} (y_{j}) (μ - p (y_{j})) - {(p^{'} (y_{j}))}^{2}] - C_{y y} (y_{j}, x) < 0,

G (x) = 2 E {p^{'} (y_{j} (x; μ_{j})) {y^{'}}_{j} (x; μ_{j}) [μ - p (y_{j} (x; μ_{j}))]} - B_{x} (x; σ_{*}) = 2 \int p^{'} (y_{j} (x; μ_{j})) {y^{'}}_{j} (x; μ_{j}) [μ - p (y_{j} (x; μ_{j}))] d F (μ) - B_{x} (x; σ_{*}),

G (0) = 2 \int p^{'} (y_{j} (x; μ_{j})) {y^{'}}_{j} (x; μ_{j}) [μ - p (y_{j} (x; μ_{j}))] d F (μ) > 0

2 \int {[p^{″} (y_{j} (x; μ_{j})) {({y^{'}}_{j} (x; μ_{j}))}^{2} + p^{'} (y_{j} (x; μ_{j})) {y^{″}}_{j} (x; μ_{j})] [μ - p (y_{j} (x; μ_{j}))] - 2 {(p^{'} (y_{j} (x; μ_{j})) {y^{'}}_{j} (x; μ_{j}))}^{2} d F (μ)} - B_{x x} (x; σ_{*}) < 0,

\frac{d S}{d y_{j}} = [ϕ (p (y_{j} (x^{*})) + Δ) - ϕ (p (y_{j} (x^{*})) - Δ)] p^{'} (y_{j} (x^{*})) > 0,

[1] marcos.winkjunior@udesc.br

	Score of 5th-graders in Portuguese Language	Score of 5th-graders on Mathematics	Average passing rate in elementary school	Average dropout rate in elementary school
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Epanechnikov Kernel (bandwidth =0.06)	4.25 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.55)	>5.09 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.56)	2.46 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.19)	-0.52 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.05)
Nearest Neighbor without replacement	3.19 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.25)	3.57 ^ significant at 5%; (0.27)	1.30 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.09)	-0.15 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.03)
Nearest Neighbor with replacement	3.09 ^* Notes: 29,963 observations. Standard errors in parentheses. *significant at 10%. (1.62)	4.01 ^ significant at 5%; (1.67)	2.31 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.60)	-0.36 ^ significant at 5%; (0.17)
Nearest 10 Neighbors with replacement	3.19 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.84)	3.78 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.85)	2.16 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.30)	-0.42 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.08)
Caliper 0.1	4.58 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.45)	5.46 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.46)	2.50 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.16)	-0.50 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.04)
Caliper 0.01	3.31 (0.85)	3.97 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.87)	2.19 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.30)	-0.43 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.08)
Caliper 0.001	3.38 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.60)	3.96 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.61)	2.30 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.21)	-0.42 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.06)
Caliper 0.0001	2.96 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.44)	3.41 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.46)	2.09 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.16)	-0.39 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.04)

	Score of 5th-graders in Portuguese Language	Score of 5th-graders in Mathematics	Average passing rate in elementary school	Average dropout rate in elementary school
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
Epanechnikov Kernel (bandwidth = 0.06)	6.47 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.64)	7.45 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.72)	2.63 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.19)	-0.57 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.06)
Nearest Neighbor without replacement	3.58 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.31)	4.42 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.35)	1.00 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.09)	-0.18 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.03)
Nearest Neighbor with replacement	3.95 ^ significant at 5%; (1.66)	5.31 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (1.88)	2.14 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.53)	-0.42 ^ significant at 5%; (0.17)
Nearest 10 Neighbors with replacement	5.47 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.99)	6.51 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (1.12)	2.60 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.31)	-0.51 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.10)
Caliper 0.1	6.64 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.52)	7.69 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.60)	2.58 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.16)	-0.56 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.05)
Caliper 0.01	4.83 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (1.18)	5.75 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (1.33)	2.43 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.35)	-0.48 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.11)
Caliper 0.001	4.76 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.83)	5.59 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.94)	2.34 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.25)	-0.44 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.08)
Caliper 0.0001	4.79 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.53)	5.48 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.60)	2.15 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.17)	-0.41 ^* ***** significant at 1%; (0.05)

Brasil

Brasil

Impacts of grade configuration on Brazilian student outcomes^* 1 In order to have an idea of the importance of each school type, observe that according to the Scholar Census of 2015, elementary schools represent 40% of the total number of schools in Brazil.

Abstract

Brasil

Brasil

Impacts of grade configuration on Brazilian student outcomes* 1 In order to have an idea of the importance of each school type, observe that according to the Scholar Census of 2015, elementary schools represent 40% of the total number of schools in Brazil.

Abstract

Impacts of grade configuration on Brazilian student outcomes^* 1 In order to have an idea of the importance of each school type, observe that according to the Scholar Census of 2015, elementary schools represent 40% of the total number of schools in Brazil.