Early detection of learning difficulties using the BADyG-E2r Battery during primary education

Ignasi Navarro Soria ^* * Correspondence:ignasi.navarro@ua.es

Department of Developmental Psychology and Didactics , University of Alicante , Alicante , Spain

José Manuel García Fernández

Department of Developmental Psychology and Didactics , University of Alicante , Alicante , Spain

Cándido J. Inglés Saura

Department of Health Psychology , Miguel Hernandez University of Elche , Elche , Spain

Marta Real Fernández

Department of Health Psychology , Miguel Hernandez University of Elche , Elche , Spain

Authors’ Contributions

INS: Project idea, article concept and design, and planning the timeline, substantially involved in the data, material, and article acquisition. Mainly responsible for drafting, writing, and revising the review article, and responsible for selection and final approval of the scholarly publication. JMGF: Provided substantial help with the concept and design. Contributed substantially to the project by drafting and revising the review article and being responsible for the final approval of the scholarly publication. CJIS: Participated in drafting the work and revising it critically with respect to important intellectual content in all its phases. MRF: Participated in drafting the work and revising it critically with respect to important intellectual content in all its phases. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Competing interests

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

	Objectives	Hypotheses (H)
a	Specify which skills have a greater predictive capacity of a student not repeating grades at the end of primary education	They will be verbal aptitudes (measured by the tests of Verbal Syllogisms and Verbal Reasoning)
b	Assess whether vocabulary knowledge (Verbal Syllogisms) and the understanding of its different uses (Verbal Reasoning) present a predictive power of academic success for both the instrumental subjects (Language and Mathematics)	They will be the same aptitudes in Verbal Syllogisms and Verbal Reasoning that determine the correct differently dimensioned Language usage
c	Determine whether the capacity for carrying out Numerical Calculations and Numerical Problem Solving presents a predictive capacity of academic success in the instrumental subjects	It will be decisive when explaining academic success in the instrumental subject of Mathematics
d	Verify whether the skills in reading and writing, spatial orientation (Spatial Syllogisms), and the understanding and management of planar space (Spatial Reasoning) presents a predictive power of academic success in the instrumental subjects	They will not present a predictive power
e	Determine whether General Intelligence presents a predictive power of academic success in the instrumental subjects	GI will not be the most powerful aptitudes predicting that academic success

Variable	Measure
Verbal Reasoning	Ability to understand and express ideas with words. Verbal contents and concepts are used, and recognition of analogy relationships between pairs s asked.
Numerical Reasoning	Problems with change, combination/comparison, and equalization
Spatial Reasoning	Ability to imagine and conceive objects in two or three dimensions Two types of stimuli: firstly with more concrete and perceptible relationships, secondly induction of more abstract relationships between the figures
Logical Reasoning	Ability to solve logical problems, to understand, and to plan
Verbal Syllogisms	Ability to use language (complete meanings or “cloze” test)
Numerical Syllogisms	Ability to manage numbers and quantitative concepts (addition and subtraction)
Spatial Syllogisms	Several mental operations to be performed: shape rotations, comparison of sizes, direction, position, and form
Attention	Ability to quickly discriminate visual differences

Variable		χ ²	R ²	B	ET	Wald	p	OR	CI 95%
Verbal Reasoning		114.13	.38	0.43	0.52	71.18	< .001	1.54	1.39–1.71
	Constant	− 1.93			0.42	21.60	< .001	0.14
Numerical Reasoning		132.09	.44	0.39	0.04	62.95	< .001	1.47	1.33–1.62
	Constant	− 1.57			0.36	18.59	< .001	0.20
Spatial Reasoning		71.04	.24	0.30	0.04	54.11	< .001	1.35	1.24–1.46
	Constant	− 1.17			0.39	8.95	.03	0.30
Verbal Syllogisms		93.99	.32	0.45	0.60	57.01	< .001	1.57	1.40–1.77
	Constant	− 1.79			0.44	16.21	< .001	0.16
Numerical Syllogisms		63.79	.22	0.22	0.03	50.47	< .001	1.25	1.17–1.33
	Constant	− 0.82			0.37	4.98	.26	0.43
Spatial Syllogisms		39.60	.14	0.19	0.03	35.33	< .001	1.21	1.13–1.28
	Constant	− 0.26			0.35	0.55	.45	0.76
Attention		47.03	.16	0.26	0.41	39.46	< .001	1.29	1.19–1.40
	Constant	− 2.40			0.66	12.90	< .001	0.09
Logical Reasoning		161.88	.52	0.21	0.25	75.29	< .001	1.23	1.17–1.29
	Constant	− 4.04			0.60	44.41	< .001	0.01
General Intelligence		161.60	.52	0.12	0.14	73.09	< .001	1.13	1.09–1.16
	Constant	− 5.38			0.77	48.07	< .001	0.05
Intelligence Quotient		160.98	.51	0.16	0.20	72.08	< .001	1.18	1.13–1.22
	Constant	− 12.13			1.56	59.80	< .001	0.00

Variable		χ ²	R ²	B	ET	Wald	p	OR	CI 95%
Verbal Reasoning		254.82	.53	0.04	0.03	121.01	< .001	1.70	1.55–1.87
	Constant	− 5.44			0.52	106.64	< .001	0.00
Numerical Reasoning		221.04	.48	0.29	0.02	137.00	< .001	1.34	1.28–1.41
	Constant	− 3.40			0.33	106.76	< .001	0.03
Spatial Reasoning		134.65	.31	0.29	0.03	95.48	< .001	1.34	1.26–1.43
	Constant	− 3.23			0.37	76.10	< .001	0.03
Verbal Syllogisms		155.88	.36	0.36	0.03	99.84	< .001	1.44	1.34–1.55
	Constant	− 3.28			0.36	82.97	< .001	0.03
Numerical Syllogisms		121.49	.29	0.23	0.02	86.80	< .001	1.26	1.20–1.32
	Constant	− 2.95			0.35	67.84	< .001	0.05
Spatial Syllogisms		69.64	.17	0.18	0.02	58.93	< .001	1.19	1.14–1.25
	Constant	− 2.01			0.31	41.07	< .001	0.13
Attention		78.55	.19	0.25	0.03	61.92	< .001	1.28	1.21–1.37
	Constant	− 4.19			0.57	53.09	< .001	0.01
Logical Reasoning		325.14	.64	0.23	0.02	128.03	< .001	1.26	1.21–1.31
	Constant	− 7.96			0.73	117.92	< .001	0.00
General Intelligence		318.02	.63	0.13	0.01	125.26	< .001	1.14	1.11–1.17
	Constant	− 9.23			0.84	118.44	< .001	0.00
Intelligence Quotient		319.28	.63	0.18	0.01	126.47	< .001	1.20	1.16–1.23
	Constant	319.28			1.48	123.61	< .001	0.00

Variable		χ ²	R ²	B	ET	Wald	p	OR	CI 95%
Verbal Reasoning		192.57	.42	0.40	0.03	111.60	< .001	1.52	1.39–1.62
	Constant	− 4.15			0.42	94.63	< .001	0.01
Numerical Reasoning		311.81	.62	0.40	0.03	148.40	< .001	1.50	1.40–1.60
	Constant	− 4.77			0.42	125.06	< .001	0.00
Spatial Reasoning		146.00	.34	0.31	0.03	100.39	< .001	1.37	1.28–1.45
	Constant	− 3.47			0.38	82.01	< .001	0.03
Verbal Syllogisms		146.06	.34	0.34	0.03	96.36	< .001	1.41	1.32–1.51
	Constant	− 3.13			0.35	80.00	< .001	0.04
Numerical Syllogisms		145.74	.33	0.26	0.02	97.35	< .001	1.30	1.23–1.37
	Constant	− 3.43			0.38	79.57	< .001	0.03
Spatial Syllogisms		99.25	.24	0.22	0.02	76.75	< .001	1.25	1.19–1.31
	Constant	− 2.60			0.34	58.64	< .001	0.07
Attention		76.55	.19	0.25	0.03	60.71	< .001	1.28	1.20–1.36
	Constant	− 4.15			0.57	52.47	< .001	0.01
Logical Reasoning		367.07	.69	0.27	0.02	123.02	< .001	1.32	1.25–1.38
	Constant	− 9.47			0.88	115.62	< .001	0.00
General Intelligence		374.67	.70	0.16	0.01	118.05	< .001	1.18	1.14–1.21
	Constant	− 11.693			1.09	113.94	< .001	0.00
Intelligence Quotient		375.71	.70	0.22	0.02	120.13	< .001	1.25	1.20–1.30
	Constant	− 20.74			1.90	118.56	< .001	0.00

Brasil