INTERNSHIP IN EDUCATION AND SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: THEORY AND PRACTICE IN A SCHOOL-SERVICE

ABSTRACT

This article aims to present data from a research work that intended to investigate which theoretical conceptions and which activities were developed in the supervised curricular internship of psychology, in the school and educational area, in a school service of the State University of Paraná. We present reflections about the relationship among psychology, the school and the emergence of psychology school services in Brazil; we outline some considerations about the formation of man; and the relationship with education, by means of historical-cultural psychology and historical-critical pedagogy, both based on Marxism. Next, we expose data obtained from the analysis of 106 internship reports. As a result, we observed that the theory and practice represented in the internship reports presented, simultaneously, a traditional and critical perspective of psychology in the school field.

Keywords:
supervised internship; school and educational psychology; historical-cultural psychology

RESUMO

Este artigo objetiva apresentar dados de uma pesquisa que teve como finalidade investigar quais as concepções teóricas e quais atividades foram desenvolvidas no estágio curricular supervisionado de psicologia, na área escolar e educacional, em um serviço-escola de uma Universidade Estadual do Paraná. Apresentamos reflexões sobre as relações entre a psicologia, a escola e o surgimento dos serviços-escola de psicologia no Brasil; traçamos algumas considerações sobre a formação do homem; e a relação com a educação, por meio da psicologia histórico-cultural e pedagogia histórico-crítica, ambas fundamentadas no marxismo. Em seguida, expomos dados obtidos na análise de 106 relatórios de estágio. Como resultados, observamos que a teoria e a prática representadas nos relatórios de estágio apresentaram, simultaneamente, uma perspectiva tradicional e crítica de psicologia no campo escolar.

Palavras-chave:
estágio supervisionado; psicologia escolar e educacional; psicologia histórico-cultural

RESUMEN

En este artículo se tiene por objetivo presentar datos de una investigación que tuvo como finalidad investigar cuáles son las concepciones teóricas y cuáles actividades se desarrollaron en la pasantía curricular tutelado de psicología, en el área escolar y educacional, en un servicio-escuela de una Universidad Estadual en Paraná. Presentamos reflexiones sobre las relaciones entre la psicología, la escuela y el surgimiento de los servicios-escuela de psicología en Brasil; trazamos algunas consideraciones sobre la formación del hombre; y la relación con la educación, por intermedio de la psicología histórico-cultural y pedagogía histórico-crítica, ambas fundamentadas en el marxismo. Después, exponemos datos obtenidos en el análisis de 106 informes de pasantía. Como resultados, observamos que la teoría y la práctica representadas en los informes de pasantía lo presentaron, simultáneamente, una perspectiva tradicional y crítica de psicología en el campo escolar.

Palabras clave:
pasantía tutelada; psicología escolar y educacional; psicología histórico-cultural

INTRODUCTION

The research data that we present are part of a master’s dissertation that aimed at investigating which theoretical conceptions and which activities were developed in the supervised curricular internship, in a school-service at a state university in the countryside of Paraná, in the field of school and educational psychology.

The first course projects for the formation of psychologists in Brazil, even before the regulation of the profession, already included the mandatory realization of internships (ABEP, CFP, & FENAPSI, 2018). Because it is an important, indispensable part of psychologists’ professional formation, representing the relation between academic and professional activity, the “Conselho Federal de Psicologia” (Federal Psychology Council) - CFP and the “Associação Brasileira de Ensino de Psicologia” (Brazilian Association for Psychology Teaching) - ABEP and the “Federação Nacional dos Psicólogos” (National Psychology Federation) - FENAPSI (2018) emphasize the need to always approach this theme, while aiming at constant theoretical-methodological, ethical, and technical qualification and upgrading of the formative process.

Historically speaking, theoretical conceptions on education and school psychology have been permeated, in numerous situations, by a traditional view, whereas a critical view has predominated in other situations. The first one, a hegemonic view, according to Lessa (2010), was influenced by the premises of psychometry and medicine, while expressing the dichotomies between subject-object, individual-society, mind-body, objectivity-subjectivity. Thus, the foundation of clinical work within the school consists of the production of diagnoses and the treatment of learning problems, while individually blaming the failure at learning on the student. Constituted by formal logic, the traditional psychological practice understands the practice of school psychologies as focused on the individual, while context is disregarded.

However, based on a contrast to this model, after the 1970s, a new route for school psychology and critical education was delineated. According to Lessa (2010), this was a movement towards the restructuring of ideas that, until then, had been closely connected to traditional psychology. Led by Maria Helena Souza Patto, it was then developed into a wider view of the schooling process, which the positioning by Patto (1984) provided a reference, for many professionals, of a new mode of practice, highlighting psychology’s commitment to oppose the interests of the ruling classes, and aim at the development of new premises for the field.

We emphasize that the concept of criticism might take on diverse meanings depending on the adopted theoretical-philosophical orientations, according to Meira (2003). This author, based on a Marxist referential, states that a thought that intends to be critical must have major elements such as a reflexive method that captures the movement of contradictions, the multiple determinations, and of phenomena as historically constituted, concrete social facts amenable to change by human action. It is important to evidence the ideological character of science, and denounce the separation of men from their humanity due to the conditions imposed by capitalism. It is also important to provide the opportunity to use science as an instrument for transforming reality (Meira, 2003).

Based on these initial ideas, in this research work, we will briefly present reflections in the relations between psychology, school, and the appearance of psychology school-services in Brazil. We will outline a few considerations on the man’s formation and the relation with education by means of cultural-historical psychology and critical-historical pedagogy, which consists of a theoretical support for school psychology with a Marxist basis. Henceforth, we will display some data obtained in the assessment of internship reports.

Historical relations between psychology, education, and the school-service

The history of psychology was composed by determined concrete conditions, which still reverberate nowadays. The constitution of psychology, in its consolidation as an independent science, has gone through influence by the study of behaviors, and of the physical and biological sciences. It has also aligned with the liberal ideology.

Carrying all these tendencies, the history of psychology in the context of schools has constituted itself as the scientific support and basis for pedagogy and education. In psychology’s connection with school and education in Brazil, we observe four significant moments. The first one is related to traditional pedagogy; the second one, to the new school; and the third one refers to technicist pedagogy - these theories were described by Saviani (2012) as non-critical. They found support in psychology, sometimes by means of the fundaments of psychoanalysis, of Rogerian theory, of Piagetian theory, of behavior analysis, and so on. However, the fourth moment stands out because it is critical both in the field of education as well as in the field of psychology. In education, critical-historical pedagogy, developed by Dermeval Saviani and collaborators after 1979, in psychology, with the critical school psychology movement, one of the cornerstones of which is the work entitled “Psychology and ideology - a critical introduction to school psychology” by Patto (1984). These two movements regard concrete, historical, and social determinants.

Besides conducing the process of criticism within school psychology, the influences of Patto’s thought also reverberated in the psychology school-services, especially at the University of São Paulo - USP, which celebrated its 40^th anniversary in 2017. A professor at the institution, Patto was the institutional creator of this service, emphasized by Souza (2017, p. 57) “[...] as an important cornerstone in the implantation of a device, a strategy, an institutional instance in which a determined world view, man, psychology, and school and educational psychology materialized itself.”

It is important to mention that the comprehension on the relation between development and learning was amplified with the arrival of cultural-historical psychology in the 1980s in Brazil. Based on historical and dialectical materialism, the theory brings important elements in order to comprehend the development of a psyche attached to the appropriation scientific knowledge, while highlighting the importance of schools and teachers in the students’ humanization process. Such concept is not hegemonic, but it has contributed to interventions and studies that intended to overcome the natural, biological view on human development. From this critical point of view, according to Silva, Pedro, Silva, Rezende and Barbosa (2013), the search for a comprehension of man must start on the concrete character of their social and individual life, that is, in the relations man constitutes because they are the means by which man constitutes himself.

The school-services were regulated along with the psychologist’s profession by Law no. 4.119 of August 27^th, 1962, which established a minimum curriculum for graduation in Psychology, and the School-clinics¹, which had the principal objective to “[...] apply, in practice, the psychological techniques learned in the classroom [...]” (Amaral et al., 2012, p. 38).

According to Lima (2011), these services are essential for the formative process in psychology, it is fundamental to guarantee, in addition to theoretical formation provided by the disciplines, participation in practices that realize the theoretical-practical integration that is related to professional practice. This is evidence that this relation must be understood in a dialectical way, so that we will not mistakenly think that there are ready-to-use solutions to be simply implemented in professional practice. These services prove important spaces for the strengthening of psychology as a science and a profession. In addition to providing an answer to the community’s demands, the comprehensive internship might consolidate activities that, articulating theoretical knowledge with practice and the challenges posed by reality, encourage the interns to adopt an active stance regarding the formative process (Lima, 2011).

Since the end of the 19th century, in Brazil, psychology laboratories have made themselves present and fundamental for research and for the formation of new professionals. According to Firmino (2011), by means of the first laboratories, the practice of psychology has emerged in alliance with research. However, in the 1980s, the formative process in psychology emphasis on the content that should be assimilated and applied. Internship was postponed until the last year and it consisted of a field of application rather than of research (Ferreira Neto, 2004).

Still in the 1990s, there were debates that included federal and regional councils of psychology, and the participants came up with a proposal, which was “[…] based on the LDB, in contrast with an old curricular conception, focused on programmatic content and disciplines, in which the greatest concern was the construction of professional competences and skills [...]” (Ferreira Neto, 2004, p. 156). The author also affirms that the basis was a “minimum curriculum” for psychology, with a content oriented-character and a perspective that aims at the application of knowledge, while demanding that practice be more present, since the very first part of the course.

After intense debate with the formative and professional instances, that was the eventual publication of national guidelines for graduation courses in psychology, by means of Resolution CNE/CNS n. 8, of May 7th 2004, and published again seven years later by Resolution CNE/CES nº 5, of March 5th 2011. The DCN 2004/2011, “[...] introduced a new concept and a new mode of practice: the basic internships. The objective of this introduction was to promote the integration of theory and practice throughout the whole course, and not only in its final phase, which was the practice until then […] (ABEP, CFP & FENAPSI, 2018, p. 57). Recently, there was a review on the National Curricular Guidelines for graduation courses in psychology, in 2018. A draft of the Guidelines has already ban approved by the National Health Council on September 13th 2018 and now the draft is being appreciated by the National Education Council and the Ministry of Education and Culture.

In this brief historical trajectory, it is important to mention that, in 1990, the “Associação Brasileira de Psicologia Escolar e Educacional”, or Brazilian Association for Education and School Psychology (ABRAPEE), with the objective to bring together professionals and researchers in this field of psychology in order to promote and advertise research works in the area and obtain legal recognition for school psychologists at educational institutions. Along with the Federal Psychology Council and other associations that constitute the Forum for National Entities of Brazilian Psychology (FENPB), the ABRAPEE has promoted several actions for approval by the PL 3688/2000, which regulates the insertion of psychologists and social assistants into the educational system. the aforementioned PL was approved at the end of 2019, which was an important cornerstone for the practice of education and school psychologists.

After this explanation on the history of education and school psychology and the school-service, in the next item, we will approach the conception of man and education that has permeated the research assessments reported here.

Formation of man and the relations with education

The Marxist conception of male emphasize is that labor underlies an essential aspect of man’s constitution, which is present at all moments of life. At a phylogenetic level, with the body development, the perfectioning of Labor and sociability, it was possible, for every man, to become aware of the importance up cooperation and the need for communication, which originated, thus, human language, which led to complexification of the brain and the enhancement of the organs of the senses (Engels, 1976).

As a consequence, man has become able to plan labor and have it executed by other hands, as a result of such planning. Engels (1976) highlights the fact that all the merit for the rapid progress of civilization is attributed to the development of brain activity. However, according to the author, “[…] men have fallen into the habit of explaining their acts as a result of their thoughts, rather than explaining them as consequences of their needs (which, rapidly, reach awareness, that is, the brain) [...]” (Engels, 1976, p. 222), is thus the foundation for the idealist conception of the world while disregarding the essential role played by labor.

According to Politzer, Besse and Caveing (1954), Marx was based on the concrete observation of reality in an old affirmation that man is a product of the history of societies and does not thrive outside his means. Thus, all “[…] world history is nothing but the engineering of man by means of human labor […]” (Marx, 2010, p. 81). We wish to emphasize the contradiction between the aspect of Labor that supports and liberates man and conclusions him to an appropriation of social wealth and unlimited development. And the other aspect, the enslaving one, which takes on the form of mere expense of physical and intellectual energy by a worker, which is an aspect that is present in class society when labor becomes a currency in the market (Marx, 2013).

We can affirm that psychologists, just like every other working category in capitalist society, make themselves available for the market and display, like goods, their labor activities, as autonomous professionals or as employees. Thus, we bring into our discussion the thought by Saviani (2013) on the specificity of Labor for education, which relates to the work of psychologists to a great extent and might also contribute do a comprehension of the work of the teacher advisor for the internship and of the education and school psychologist. The author emphasizes that labor is an intentional action that is mentally anticipated and that has an objective. Thus, the author affirms that education, which is peculiar of human beings, is a labor process and establishes a difference between labor as a producer of human subsistence, which he names “material labor” and the “nonmaterial labor”, concerning the “[…] production of ideas, concepts, values, symbols, habits, attitudes, and skills. In a nutshell, it consists of the production of knowledge, be it knowledge and nature, or knowledge on culture, that is, the whole sum of human production [...]” (Saviani, 2013, p. 12).

The author places education in the category named “nonmaterial labor” and analyzes that education exists in two modes: the first mode deals with activities in which the final result is a product, no matter if the products are books or works of art, which detach from the producer. The second mode, the class for example, is characterized by the absence of separation between the act of production and the product, in which “[…] the class is then produced and consumed at the same time (produced by the teacher and consumed by the students)” (Saviani, 2013, p. 12). Based these ideas, we can say that the work of psychologists is “nonmaterial labor”, because just like teachers, education and school psychologists work with concepts, values, habits, attitudes, skills, and most importantly have aims to understand and contribute to the transformation of these aspects in individuals.

Concerning the internship theme, it is necessary to understand the relation between theory and practice. These two terms are dichotomized in capitalist society, but for Marxist thought, in the professional practice of education and school psychologists, have be it as apprentices in the supervised internship, or operating directly in the labor market, theory and practice come together. Following the same line of analysis concerning the internships, Nasciutti and Silva (2014) assess that the dialectic relation between theory and practice is imperative for conceptual appropriation and, thus, the authors indicate learn accessory to understand theory and practice as a unit.

Therefore, the supervised internship constitutes itself as a fundamental activity for the professional practice of the future school psychologist, it also proves, according to Machado (2014), a field of investigation, since author, intervention, and investigation proceed together.

As we have affirmed throughout this article, there is no separation between theoretical knowledge and intervention. The supervised internship at school must not be understood uniquely as a place for application of theory, but also as an experience of production of theoretical knowledge that, based on practice, is conducive to the comprehension of the real movement behind the pose, that is, beyond the phenomenological appearances, thus amplifying the possibilities for action and for transformation in practices. Vázquez, (2011, p. 153), in this sense, affirms that “[…] man gets to know the world to the same extent that he works on it, so there is no knowledge that is apart from this practical relation [...]”.

In accordance with Marxist thought, cultural historical psychology also helps us think over the theory and the practice exercised in the internship by the students and by the practices of the teacher/advisor. According to Leontiev (1978), to this theory, the human acquisitions obtained by means of Labor are objectivated under the material and intellectual form, and are transmitted from generation to generation. Based on the degree of development of the psychomotor functions and of the complexity of language, they express themselves as the perfectioning of utensils, works of art, and so on.

Vigotski (1993), in his research on Higher Mental Functions (HMF) - such as memory, focused attention, abstract reasoning, and other functions - formulates the general law of genesis of cultural development, announcing that every function in cultural development appears twice. The first time, the function appears socially (interpsychological). Later, it appears in the psychological realm (intrapsychological). It means that the genesis of HMFs contains the human social relations. In this process, mediation takes place by means of other men, and also by means of the mediation of labor technical instruments, and psychological instruments, the signs, such as “[…] language, the different forms of numbering and calculation, mnemotechnical devices, algebra symbolism, works of art, writing, diagrams, maps, drawings, and all types of conventional signs.” (Vigotski, 1996, p. 93/94). It consists, therefore, of a complex interaction between individuals and the world.

The appropriation of school knowledge does not take place in a natural, spontaneous way, or by simple observation. Thus, the relation between men and the learning process is necessary for such appropriation to take place. So, order to dinner clarify the characteristics of the interrelation between development and learning, Vigotski (2005), announces the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), in which individuals realize activities with assistance and actual development, referring to what has already been made effective in individuals, Based on the premise that there is a relation between children’s level of development and potential for learning, the author advocates that schools must propose activities to enhance the level of proximal development, while promoting psychological development as well.

Concerning the assessment process, psychologists must take into consideration the two levels of development in order to produce a diagnosis of a student’s cognitive development. This view on assessment, proposed by Vigotski (2005), disagrees with the point of view of traditional psychology, which only measures the actual development level. According to Facci and Souza (2014), the process of assessment of school complaints is also intervention, in which psychologists work with children using mediating resources that allow the observer to get to know what is within the actual level of development and proximal one, in addition to being conducive to cognitive development during the realization activities. In view of that premise, “[...] learning itself does not mean development, it is rather a correct organization of a child’s learning which leads to mental development, activates a whole group of development processes, and such activation would not be possible without learning [...]” (Vygotsky, 2005, p. 40). However, it is important to emphasize that, concerning the investigations are related to school activity, according to Bogoyavlensky and Menchinskaya (2005), students do not play a passive role in the educational process. They are also subjects of development, because they reached level of development, the relations of the individual with the environment, and the objectives of the activity are elements that influence learning.

That is the reason why the teaching comprehension that will rule the work of the education and school psychologist, or even teaching itself in the formation of a psychologist, especially the internship in education and school psychology, must not rely solely on technicist knowledge, with ready-to-use recipes that do not lead to the level of generalizations and abstractions that are coherent with the appropriation of scientific knowledge. In the process of appropriation-socialization of scientific knowledge, the role played by the teacher-advisor must be one of mediator in order to promote a tension between the empirical (practice) and the abstract (theory). As a result, the formative process must be an integral human formation that stimulates critical thought in the teachers’ actions, in contrast with the mere passive adaptation by individual to society.

After the presentation of a few theoretical premises, we will now dwell on the research in the intern reports in the field of school education.

DATA OBTAINDE IN THE SUPERVISED INTERNSHIP REPORTS IN EDUCATION AND SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

The survey on the data was realized by means of documental analysis and supervised internship reports in education and school psychology. The place where the research was developed, a state university in the countryside of Paraná, offers the psychology course since 1979, and provides the school-service since 1984. it was created in order to promote the development of supervised curricular internships.

After conclusion of the internship, the groups must present a report on the activities realized for every area: school, labor, health. and clinical processes. Thus, 35 years of operations in this kind of service, there is a large number of stored reports. We focused on the area of school education and defined a stratification of time, considering reports for periods of five years. We chose the year of 1984 to start the research because it was the time when the school-service got started. Subsequently, we assessed the reports from the years: 1989, 1994, 1999, 2003, 2009 and 2014. We need it to replace the year 2004 by the reports from 2003 because we could not find enough content for analysis. A total sum of 106 reports were analyzed.

In order to assess the information, we intended to identify a few aspects in the texts: conception of psychology and school psychologist’s function; vision on man; relation between development and learning; concept of education and role played by the school; developed activities and target public.

We wish to emphasize that since the first year we analyzed, that is, 1984, until the last one, 2014, all internships developed characterization of school, based on the analysis of the pedagogical project of the place of the internship, observation, and most often also interviews with the pedagogical staff, teachers, and students in order to get to know the school environment and identify the necessity presented by the school, so that one of the could be selected for assistance and for the basis of an intervention project to be executed during the internship.

In Table 1, we present the public and the developed activities. However, we excluded the reports that presented only one occurrence during the correspondent year.

Table 1
Public and developed activities in general.

Public and activities	Year	Frequency	Total
Collective intervention with students	1984	2	77
	1989	9
	1994	16
	1999	8
	2003	12
	2009	16
	2014	14
Course/orientation/meeting with teachers or pedagogical staff	1984	3	66
	1989	15
	1994	14
	1999	9
	2003	13
	2009	6
	2014	6
Assessment/individual assistance to students	1984	5	45
	1989	8
	1994	10
	1999	3
	2003	4
	2009	10
	2014	5
Meeting/conferences/interviews with parents	1984	4	33
	1989	5
	1994	10
	1999	2
	2003	8
	2009	4
Individual assistance to parents, teachers, and members of staff	1999	2	8
	2009	3
	2014	3
Collective intervention with school workers	1989	2	2

• Source: the authors.

Based on Table 1, we observed that the collective intervention activities with the students, course, orientations, and meetings with teachers or pedagogical staff and the assessment and individual assistance to students or actions developed in all years we analyzed. Thus, we were able to come up with a hypothesis that these three were the most representative activities in this formative process regarding the internship.

Concerning the practices in the report, we observed that in the first year, 1984, that they were based on the individual assessment and assistance, characteristic of the first interventions of the school psychologist, according to Facci and Souza (2014). In 1989, the predominant practice focuses on the work with teachers, which hints at change in the intervention focus, which was previously on the student, and later helping the teacher intervene with them. In 1994, centrality shifts have focuses on collective intervention with the students, still constantly observed by the work with the teachers. However, it is still present in individual assessment and assistance. Such form of intervention was also found in the research realized by Lessa (2010).

According to Checchia and Souza (2003), psychology, at the time of the regulation of the profession, had already developed a history that was printed in the new courses and profession, reaffirming the clinical character. In their formation, the new courses emphasized the psychodiagnosis, the psychotherapies, the techniques, and the individual assistance, turning the students into clinical psychologists. Also, according to these authors, in the 1970s, the criticisms had not yet produced an effect on professionalization and formative process.

Checchia and Souza (2003) also emphasize that, at the end of the 1980s, professional formation was still based on curative work and on the teaching of psychological techniques. Meanwhile, psychology had already gone through the period of exception Imposed by the military regime, which promoted the adaptation of individuals to society, while eliminating criticism by men and society. In the psychology formative process, it was believed that, by explaining reality by means of psychological aspects, it would be possible to eliminate the conceptions that discuss the organization and the operation of society permeated by social inequalities However, the social context gradually takes back its part in psychology discussions, and criticisms are made regarding they used theoretical references, including the psychoanalysis based on the interpersonal and individual dimensions (Checchia & Souza, 2003). In this context, education and school psychology advanced in the task to overcome the individualizing, blaming, and adaptative vision by means of the criticism process.

The intervention with teachers and students in a collective way it’s still the most developed activity from 1999 to 2003. There is also a sharp decrease an individual intervention and assessment with students. After the 1990s, there was greater advertisement of the works by Vygotsky that, according to Facci (2004), started to be published in Brazil in 1984. This theory started to influence education, contradicting the premises that emphasize everyday knowledge and defend the socialization of systematized knowledge. Furthermore, in these reports, we noticed the insertion of elements of cultural-historical psychology, such as the development of higher mental functions, the periodization of development, human development, and the teaching-learning process.

Vigotski (1993) emphasizes that school education is the most important source for the development of scientific concepts, and it is a determinant factor in the intellectual development of children. Considering this comprehension of Vygotskian theory, it is necessary to highlight the fact that the role played by the teacher in the education process consists of collaborating to the process of humanization of individuals, since: “School education, therefore, is different from other spontaneous forms of education, because its main objective is the production of humanity in individuals [...]” (Facci, 2004, p. 227).

At school, the teacher mediates knowledge, in the sense that the teacher has already appropriated the culture elaborated by men and must lead the students into the same appropriation, and systematization of teaching might influence the development of higher mental forms. The formation of the higher mental functions is a result of the mediation of human activity and, therefore, there must be intentionality in the mediation of school lounge, so that the teacher guides the higher mental functions, while having a comprehension of the ones that have already been formed and the ones that still need to be developed. Thus, the psychologist needs to appreciate the work of such professional, and the intervention needs to take place during the process of instrumentalization of the professional, and not of blaming or under appreciation of teacher’s knowledge, according to our observations of some reports over the initial years.

In 2009, all reports presented the development of psycho-educational groups with students, which were the result of great demand for individual assessments, which in this case do not represent a return to psychologists’ traditional mode of operation at school, but rather a consequence of the guidelines by the Bureau of education of the state of Paraná, by indicating that all students attending special education classes must be previously assessed by a multi-disciplinarian team. As a result, the psychology course collaborated with assessments, most of the times, that overcame the exclusive use of tests and that took into consideration the multi-determinations of the school complaints, according to what we can find in authors that work from a cultural-historical perspective in psychology (Facci, Leonardo, & Souza, 2019).

In 2014, the activities were based predominantly all the collective intervention with the students, followed by the collective intervention with the teachers or pedagogical staff. The individual assessment of students was still a developed practice but at a lesser degree. Concerning the theoretical perspective, we noticed at some moments a collection of psychological theories, because of the learning process the students were going through. However, a critical perspective was generally present regarding psychology and the function of psychologists, times regarded as an agent for change, even when they were supported by theoretical perspectives but did not aim at social transformation.

After 2003, a certain theoretical eclecticism still remains in some reports, but concerning cultural historical psychology, since theory was the foundation for the internship, we noticed an increase in theoretical clarity and a decrease in the plurality of conceptions used to approach the demand that was dealt with during the internship.

We wish to emphasize that, although cultural historical psychology has been developed as a theoretical perspective that guided the reports, hegemonic perspectives were also used in combination with the critical perspective. In this sense, Meira (2003) warns us that:

Contrary to hegemonic tendencies, we consider that it is possible to accomplish the task of criticism at this historical moment. That does not mean that the enterprise will be easy or peaceful. In fact, we need to make great effort in order to prevent progressist visions nowadays from being assimilated by the conservative wave that sweeps over the world, and the critical-theoretical reflection plays a privileged role in this process. (p. 15).

An exhibit of the view on man was clearly a preoccupation of the ones supported by the historical-dialectic Marxist-materialistic conception, or also, as mentioned by the reports, a critical-historical view on man, according to Vigotsky (1993), Vázquez, (2011) and Tanamachi (2006). We consider that there was a development of this perspective because, in 2014, the last assessed year, Marxism was the predominant view on man, and it was emphasized by 11 of the 14 analyzed the reports.

We also came up with a hypothesis that many reports do not present a view on men because it is not a preoccupation in some positivist perspectives on psychology. It seems to us that it is secondary in some approaches that do not take into consideration the relations of class and political positions, as if there were neutrality in science and, consequently, in the intervention on the interns. Marx (2010) affirms the existence of two classes - workers and owners - and the creation of this aspect is fundamental in an action intending transformation, and the process of humanization of teachers, students, and parents, for example. Thus, why speak of a view on man? Because man takes form, develops, learns, and humanizes by means of his relation with other people, by means of Labor. Historicity is fundamental in the comprehension of facts, but this is not always taken into consideration nowadays in many productions/interventions in the area of psychology and, more specifically, in the field of school education.

The relation between development still learning also followed this trajectory, and it was the heart of theoretical eclecticism, outlined in time by the Piagetian, Rogerian perspective, psychoanalysis, and so on. However, the conception of cultural-historical psychology was also present and gained momentum along the years, with an emphasis on the fact that learning generates development, according to Vigotski (2005), Vigotski (2000), Asbahr, Martins and Mazzolini (2011), Facci (2004).

Concerning the conception of education and the function of school, since 1984, these two, understood as reproducers of the State’s ideology, but also as liberators, change in accordance with development/advertising of critical-historical pedagogy and of cultural-historical psychology, result of the historical process that leads to access to new productions. These theories emphasize a critical conception of education, in which the function of school, basically consists of socialization and appropriation of scientific knowledge, while promoting the psychological development of the students. As we have seen previously, Vigotski, (1993) is very clear when he states that learning promotes development. On the other hand, Saviani (2013) understands that the social function of school is the socialization of knowledge produced by men.

It was possible to identify those different theoretical perspectives are present in the reports, especially behavioral psychology, psychoanalysis, Piagetian theory, and cultural-historical psychology. These perspectives changed with time. when we observed the productions by the team of teachers who supervised the works, we understood that they were coherent what the positions of these professionals who provided orientation in the internships and who were based on different theoretical perspectives. As a consequence, in certain years, the Piagetian theory was more present, for example, because there were more groups supervised by teachers in this theoretical line, just as there was growth in cultural-historical psychology because there was a greater number of supervisors who worked in this perspective and were conducive to different characteristics in the work. However, no matter the theoretical perspective, we observed that the education and school psychology proposed in the internships involved students, teachers, and in many situations, the parents.

We wish to share a reflection. In our analysis, the relation between theory and practice changed in the reports. In the first analyzed years, there was the impression that the only interest in the internship was to report interventions. Later, we observed an increase in the intention to clarify the theoretical foundations underlying the actions. It is likely that. based on the ideas by Santos (2006), the development of the internships led to the formation of ideas, which turned into practice. The freedom to leave the concrete and theoretically instrumentalize leads students to a return to the practice that seeks essence, as well as a comprehension of all the problems interns have to face. In this aspect, we consider that this awareness constitutes a vision of school psychology based on Marxism.

Checchia and Souza (2003) considered that one of the great challenges in the formation of psychologists consists of implementing discussions and elements of a critical practice in school psychology. Nasciutti and Silva (2014) also defend the view that, in a critical conception, the supervisor’s mediation is fundamental for the student to establish a dialectical relation between theory and practice. Concerning the part of the formative process that is represented by supervised internship and that originated the reports we analyzed, the clearest point in the results of this research is the intention to overcome challenges. Not only discussions were started, but most importantly a critical look was developed. It was bases on cultural-historical psychology, even though the traditional vision still insists on remaining at a smaller scale, which makes it clear that the contradictions present in society permeate the psychologists’ actions. In this sense, it is necessary to say that the advances and drawbacks happen because, in capitalist society, there is a strong necessity to stop transformation. However, the present contradictions are the ones that encourage psychologists to take a position in the process of transition between a critical vision and a traditional vision on psychology for education and school.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

In the year when we started the analysis, 1984, the understanding by Patto (1984) on students’ failure was quite recent because the critical movement took place in the late 1970s and early 1980s. So the influence by this thought, in contrast with the traditional method of executing psychology at school, with the individualizing and adaptive focus, was not present yet in the reports Only later do we notice the incorporation of a critical intervention into the practice of psychology.

However, when the critical movement starts to be part of psychology and its relation with school, we notice that there is no dichotomization between these two ways of looking at school phenomenon by traditional and critical psychology. They are interconnected in the reports we analyzed, and also in the profession, research, and formation as a whole. It is possible to notice, as a consequence, the relation between the reports and the formative process of the psychology course in the assessed institution come on what historical process of education and school psychology in Brazil, as well as with the constitution of psychology as a science.

In the beginning, the reports highlighted a mode of comprehension of neoliberal ideology, which influenced and still influences the formative process and the profession of education and school psychologists, just by understanding the contradictions of capitalist society, have reflected at school as fatalistic and without any perspective for change. As time passes by though, social determinants at school started to be understood by a dialectical view, by means of which, society can be reproduced and also changed by men. In other words, school does not have the supreme power to dominate ideas, attitudes, and behaviors by the students, since they find themselves in an active relation with knowledge and the other actors at school. However, when it serves its social purpose of socialization of systematized knowledge, school has the capacity to allow students to develop more elaborate ways of thinking, while detaching from obstacles that stop them from deepening their view of the world.

Meira (2003) and Tanamachi (2006), among other authors, affirm that a critical reading of psychology and its relation with school is the one that takes into consideration the multiple determinations of the context. That is, it is a perspective that does not understand school as an island, which is isolated from the world. In this sense, we can emphasize, by means of assessing the reports, that the performance of of the interns and their advisors, mostly followed a critical perspective, while emphasizing social determinations. Nonetheless, as we could verify in the historical process of psychology’s constitution, in general, and of school psychology in Brazil specifically, since its roots were oriented by reactionary ideas. Even though there was contradiction between practice and theory, neoliberal ideas were also present. Sometimes the complaint was blamed and individualized, sometimes it was attributed to the student, sometimes to the teacher, which also suggested adjustment/adaptation by the student. That is, the intention was not always to change the current situation in society.

Asbahr, Martins and Mazzolini (2011) affirm that in education and school psychology reductionist perspectives still exist, and emphasize the need to reconstruct what characterizes the work of the psychologist, understood by these authors as a professional identity. One characteristic of this reconstruction necessity is made evident by Machado (2014), when he emphasizes that the critical process had a consequence, because psychologists in a formation process in the field of school education know that there are practices that reproduce the relations of inequality, that discriminate, and that label but do not have the clarity do deal with it, or to take a critical stance. However, because there are professionals/teachers who are committed with a transforming theoretical conception, this ends up producing an effect on the formative process because we have observed that the teacher is the one who leads the way to be followed by the interns. This was evident in the way education and the teaching-learning process were understood in the reports, which were coherent with the perspective adopted by the supervisors.

According to (2016), within the classist structure of society, the instrumentalization of the teachers is directly related to the professional formation process in psychology because, based on a position regarding the basic contradictions of capitalism, teachers might help the students insert themselves into one of the poles of the contradiction, that is, between the processes of alienation and humanization. Consequently, since the teacher/advisor in the internship plays an important role in the professional formation of psychologists, it is evident that the formative process must take place in on-site mode. The on-site orientations and, certainly, the exchanges between the students and the teachers are relevant for the appropriation of theoretical and practical knowledge that are necessary for psychologists in formation.

By questioning whether the internship is the practical application of the learned theory, we emphasize, in accordance with Vieira Pinto (1969), but human life is always practical, since situations do not take place precisely the same way. There is always a need for rational comprehension in order to satisfy the necessities posed by various circumstances. In other words, practice is based on the capacity to reflect on what is real, while attempting to reach an objective. Thus, in the Marxist sense of the term, there is an indelible connection between theory and practice. However, practice originates new objectives for human beings, because it generates new ideas, which will make men see and get to know the world in a more amplified, deeper way. Consequently, the internship, in addition to the application of theory into practice, also represents the production of knowledge.

We emphasize that theory and practice, represented in the internship reports, reflected the contradictions of capitalist society of alienation and humanization. Such productions presented, simultaneously, a traditional and critical perspective of psychology in the field of school education, while moving towards progress in the overcoming of the individualistic/adaptation view. It is important to mention that Meira (2003) observed that we are far from completing the process of critical contextualization in education and school psychology. Nevertheless, we are closer to our objective now.

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• 1
  The school-clini nomenclature as replaced by School-service after the 12^th Encontro de Clínicas-Escola do Estado de São Paulo, or Congress of School-clinics of The State of São Paulo, in 2004, with the intention to include a greater set of interventions by psychologists beyond the strictly clinical (Amaral et al., 2012).

• This paper was translated from Portuguese by Régis Lima

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  13 Dec 2021
• Date of issue
  2021

History

• Received
  17 Sept 2019
• Accepted
  02 Apr 2020