Immink & Payongayong, 1999 |
Guatemala |
Risk analysis of poor health and growth failure of children in the central highlands of Guatemala |
To identify high risk factors in children under five and of school age. |
515 children under 5 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
The low availability of food per capita, and particularly the absence of staple foods from own production at home, was the most significant risk factor for stunting in children under five years of age. Non-food risk factors were the most important for failure to thrive in school-age children. These factors included: basic sanitation, housing conditions, literacy level, and adult women's body mass index. |
Assis et al., 2005 |
Brazil |
Growth faltering in childhood related to diarrhea: a longitudinal community based study |
To assess the association of diarrhea and acute lower respiratory tract infections (ALRI) with the growth of preschoolers |
487 children between 6 and 48 months |
Longitudinal study |
Mean height-for-age Z-scores decreased in children with 7 or more days of diarrhea but not with 1 or more days of ALRI |
Casapía et al., 2007 |
Peru |
Parasite and maternal risk factors for malnutrition in preschool-age children in Belen, Peru using the new WHO Child Growth Standards |
To determine the prevalence of chronic malnutrition (short stature) and associate risk factors |
252 children under 5 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
The risk factors for stunting were: decreasing maternal age and height |
Semba et al., 2008 |
Indonésia e Bangladesh |
Effect of parental formal education on risk of child stunting in Indonesia and Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study |
To determine the effect of duration of maternal and paternal education on short stature in children under 5 years of age. |
590, 570 families in Indonesia and 395,122 families in Bangladesh |
Cross-sectional study |
In Indonesia, greater formal maternal education led to a decrease of between 4.4% and 5% in the chances of childhood stunting; higher formal paternal education led to a 3% decrease in the odds of childhood stunting. In Bangladesh, more formal maternal education led to a 4.6% decrease in the odds of stunting, while greater formal paternal education led to a decrease of between 2.9% and 5.4% in the odds of stunting. |
Rehman et al., 2009 |
Vellore, South India |
Chronic growth faltering amongst a birth cohort of Indian children begins prior to weaning and is highly prevalent at three years of age |
To describe the growth over the first three years of life and the factors related to the low growth of this population |
452 chilfren under 3 years old |
Cohort study |
Factors associated with stunting at three years were birth weight less than 2.5 kg, 'manufacturing cigarettes' (manual production of cigarettes for a daily wage) at home, maternal height less than 150 cm, being stunted, thin or underweight at six months of age and having at least one older sibling |
Avan & Kirkwood, 2010 |
Paquistão |
Role of neighbourhoods in child growth and development: Does ‘place’ matter? |
To assess the relative contributions of socioeconomic status and rural-urban neighborhoods to psychomotor growth and development |
1,244 chilfren under 3 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
Lower socioeconomic status and living in a rural rather than an urban neighborhood were strongly associated with lower psychomotor scores and short stature. |
Shang et al., 2010 |
Guangxi Autonomous Regional and Hainan Province |
Stunting and soil-transmitted-helminth infections among school-age pupils in rural areas of southern China |
To determine risk factors for stunting and provide guidance on the prevention and control of stunting and helminth infections for future studies in this field |
1,031 children between 9 and 12 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
Risk factors for stunting based on logistic regression analyses were: (1) moderate to severe helminth infections; (2) anemia; (3) mother's low education |
Lee et al., 2010 |
Guatemala |
Disentangling nutritional factors and household characteristics related to child stunting and maternal overweight in Guatemala |
To identify nutritional factors and household characteristics associated with child stunting, maternal overweight and family coexistence of both types of malnutrition. |
2,261 households with at least one child aged 12 to 60 months and their mother. |
Cross-sectional study |
Factors associated with short stature in children, such as poverty, short maternal stature and indigenism, were predictors of the binomial of overweight mothers and short stature children. These findings support the notion that SCOM is an extension of the spectrum of malnutrition in the most disadvantaged population groups. |
Menezes et al., 2011 |
Brasil |
Determinants of stunting in children under five years of age in the State of Pernambuco |
To describe the stunting of children under five and identify associated factors |
935 children between 0 and 59 months |
Cross-sectional study |
Socioeconomic variables (low per capita family income, low maternal schooling, high number of people in the household and reduced access to consumer goods), low maternal height and low birth weight remained among the risk factors associated with the structural deficit of children. |
Nasreen et al., 2013 |
Bangladesh |
Impact of maternal depressive symptoms and infant temperament on early infant growth and motor development: Results from a population based study in Bangladesh |
To investigate the independent effect of maternal perinatal depressive symptoms on infant growth and motor development in rural Bangladesh |
720 pregnant women and 652 babies aged 2-3 months and 6-8 months were evaluated |
Mothers with children aged 6 weeks to 12 months |
Prepartum depressive symptoms predicted delay in baby growth |
Chagas et al., 2013 |
Brasil |
Prevalence and factors associated to malnutrition and excess weight among under five year-olds in the six largest cities of Maranhão |
To research the prevalence of malnutrition and overweight in children under five and their association with socioeconomic, health and demographic factors |
1,214 children under 5 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
Children from families headed by women had lower prevalence of stunting. In the hierarchical logistic regression analysis, no factor was associated with height-for-age deficit. |
Schott et al., 2013 |
Etiópia, Índia, Peru e Vietnã |
Periods of Child Growth up to age 8 Years in Ethiopia, India, Peru and Vietnam: Key Distal Household and Community Factors |
To characterize infant growth up to age 1 year and from ages 1 to 5 and 5 to 8 years, controlling for the initial height-for-age z-score, and to identify the main distal family and community factors associated with these measures of growth |
7,266 children between 01 and 8 years |
Cross-sectional study |
Low parental education, inadequate food consumption and low height of mothers are the main correlates of height at around 1 year of age. |
Reurings et al., 2013 |
Guatemala |
Stunting rates in infants and toddlers born in metropolitan Quetzaltenango, Guatemala |
To describe the prevalence of stunting and the association with early feeding practices, morbidity patterns and socioeconomic status |
299 children between 6 and 23 months |
Cross-sectional study |
Being male, aged between 13 and 18 months, born at home, having a mother with low schooling and stature, being of Mayan ethnicity (indigenous), and having already received iron supplementation were associated with stunting. |
Corsi et al., 2015 |
Índia |
Risk factors for chronic undernutrition among children in India: Estimating relative importance, population attributable risk and fractions |
To assess the simultaneous contribution of 15 known risk factors to childhood stunting in India |
54,325 children between 6 and 59 months |
Cross-sectional study |
In the adjusted models, the five most important predictors of stunting/low weight were low maternal stature, uneducated mother, households in the lowest wealth quintile, low dietary diversity, and low maternal weight. |
Krasevec et al., 2016 |
Estados Unidos |
Diet quality and risk of stunting among infants and young children in low‐ and middle‐income countries |
To examine the association between two indicators of diet quality - food diversity and consumption of foods of animal origin and stunting. |
74,548 children between 6 and 23 months |
Cross-sectional study |
Low food diversity and consumption of different types of food of animal origin were associated with short stature. |
Neves et al., 2016 |
Brasil |
Growth and development and their environmental and biological determinants |
To investigate children's cognitive/language growth and development and their environmental and biological determinants |
92 children between 24-36 months |
Cross-sectional study |
Biological variables showed a greater association with growth, after the multivariate analysis, only low birth weight and the small number of prenatal consultations were risk factors for stunting. |
Rachmi et al., 2016 |
Indonésia |
Stunting, Underweight and Overweight in Children Aged 2.0-4.9 Years in Indonesia: Prevalence Trends and Associated Risk Factors |
To determine temporal trends in the prevalence of underweight, short stature and risk of overweight or obesity in Indonesian children aged 2.0 to 4.9 years; and examine associated risk factors. |
4,101 children between 2 a 4,9 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
Short stature and low weight were related to lower birth weight, being breastfed for 6 months or more, having low weight or low stature fathers, and mothers who had never attended formal education. The stunting was also greater in rural áreas. |
Musaad et al., 2016 |
Estados Unidos |
The Independent and Cumulative Effect of Early Life Risk Factors on Child Growth: A Preliminary Report |
To examine growth patterns (birth to 12 months) and their association with risk factors in early life. |
351 mothers with children aged 6 weeks to 12 months |
Cohort study |
Adherence to the low-growth versus medium-stable group doubled with non-exclusive breastfeeding at month 3, but increased among children who had three risk factors compared with none |
Chai et al., 2016 |
29 países |
Association between intimate partner violence and poor child growth: results from 42 demographic and health surveys |
To determine the impact of intimate partner violence against women on the growth of children in low- and middle-income countries. |
204,159 women aged 15 to 49 years |
Cross-sectional study |
Height deficit in children was positively associated with lifetime maternal exposure to physical violence and/or sexual violence by a partner. |
Magalhães et al., 2016 |
Brasil |
Stunting and associated factors in children aged 6 to 24 months attended in the Southwest of Bahia Health Units |
To assess the prevalence and factors associated with stunting in children aged 6 to 24 months. |
360 children between 12 and 24 months |
Cross-sectional study |
The factors that were associated with the outcome were: absence of paternal work and low birth weight |
Valente et al., 2016 |
Portugal |
Acute and chronic malnutrition and their predictors in children aged 0e5 years in Sao Tome: a cross-sectional, population-based study |
To evaluate the nutritional status and its predictors in children aged 0 to 5 years old in São Tomé |
1,285 children between 0 and 5 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
Adequate birth weight, adequate maternal nutritional status, the mother's good education and good weight gain, especially in the first year of life, were important protective factors against short stature in childhood. |
Kim et al., 2017 |
Banglades, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan |
Relative importance of 13 correlates of child stunting in South Asia: Insights from nationally representative data from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan |
To investigate the relative and joint importance of a set of 13 correlations of stunting and severe dwarfism in infants and young children aged 6 to 23 months |
3,159 babies 6 to 8 months 18,586 children aged 6 to 23 months |
Cross-sectional study |
The strongest correlates of childhood stunting were: low maternal height, low family wealth, high maternal BMI, minimal dietary diversity, low maternal education, and age at marriage. |
Cruz et al., 2017 |
Moçambique |
Factors Associated with Stunting among Children Aged 0 to 59months from the Central Region of Mozambique |
To identify key sociodemographic, health and environmental determinants of stunting in children aged 0-59 months and provide useful information for future health strategies and interventions |
282 children under 5 years |
Case control |
Low birth weight, low maternal schooling, maternal occupation, living in rural areas, large family, large number of children under five at home, cooking with charcoal, living in a wooden or straw house or without adequate flooring, short total breastfeeding time as well as the duration of exclusive breastfeeding and the time of initiation of complementary feeding were significantly related to stunting. |
Fentahun et al., 2018 |
Etiópia |
Seasonality and determinants of child growth velocity and growth deficit in rural southwest Ethiopia |
To assess child growth velocity, stunting and their determinants in rural southwest Ethiopia. |
2,607 children under 5 years olds |
Longitudinal household survey |
Children's linear growth had similar determinants in the post and pre-harvest seasons. Children with low food diversity and born in the lean season showed lower linear growth in both seasons. Child age was positively associated with children's linear growth in both seasons. On the other hand, not having had any illness during the last 2 weeks and the household's severe food insecurity were positively associated with the linear growth of the child in the post-harvest period.. |
Ntenda & Chuang, 2018 |
Malawi |
Analysis of individual-level and community level effects on childhood undernutrition in Malawi |
To uncover the effects of a wide range of individual and community-level socioeconomic factors on the risks of child malnutrition in Malawi |
6,384 mother pairs with children under 5 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
At the individual level, the risk of child malnutrition was significantly higher in males, children who were small at birth, with an episode of diarrhea in the last 2 weeks, the product of multiple births, born to mothers with low socioeconomic status, or low education, or underweight, and born in the year 2004. At the community level, children born in communities with low and medium wealth, and in communities with low and medium female education were more likely to be malnourished |
Nshiyiryo et al., 2019 |
Ruanda |
Risk factors for stunting among children under five years: a cross-sectional population-based study in Rwanda using the 2015 Demographic and Health Survey |
To identify risk factors for stunting in Rwanda. |
3,594 children under 5 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
In the adjusted analysis, the following factors were significant: boys, children 6 to 23 months and 24 to 59 months compared with ages 0-6 months, low birth weight, low maternal weight and height, primary schooling for mothers, illiterate mothers, poorer households. Family-level factors are the main drivers of stunting for children in Rwanda. |
Ismawati et al., 2020 |
Lamongan City, Indonésia |
Nutrition intake and causative factor of stunting among children aged under-5 years in Lamongan city |
To analyze nutritional intake and the factor that causes stunting in children under 5 years of age |
40 children under 5 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
The causative factor for short stature among children under 5 years of age was lower nutritional intake, infectious disease and parental characteristics. |
Campos et al., 2020 |
Mexico |
Association Between Breastfeeding and Child Stunting in Mexico. |
To examine the association between breastfeeding and other individual, family and environmental factors with stunting in children |
2,089 children between 6 and 35 months |
Cross-sectional study |
Low birth weight children, low maternal stature, greater number of children <5 years per family, and moderate to severe food insecurity were consistent risk factors for child stunting in all models. |
Dimitrova & Muttarak, 2020 |
India |
After the floods: Differential impacts of rainfall anomalies on child stunting in India |
To investigate the impact of climate variability on child malnutrition. |
220,823 children under 5 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
Excessive rainfall increases the risk of stunting in India. Children born into disadvantaged castes, poorer families and to less educated mothers are more likely to be affected than children born into less socially disadvantaged groups. |
Wu & Guo, 2020 |
China |
An analysis of the nutritional status of left-behind children in rural China and the impact mechanisms of child malnutrition |
To investigate how the state of abandonment affects child malnutrition. |
7,459 rural children aged 0 to 15 years |
Cross-sectional study |
The results show that children whose mothers work are at higher risk for stunting and underweight Individual child factors (age, sex) and parental genetic factors (height, weight) have direct effects on rates of malnutrition and underweight children, while the parents' education indirectly influences through the mediator of family income and domestic facilities. |
Silveira et al., 2020 |
Brazil |
Malnutrition and associated factors among quilombola children under 60 months of age in two cities of the state of Maranhão, Brazil |
To assess the prevalence of short stature in children younger than 60 months |
372 children under 60 months |
Cross-sectional study |
Children whose mothers had short stature (< 1.497 m) were more likely to have a height-for-age déficit |
Baye & Hirvonen, 2020 |
Ethiopia |
Evaluation of Linear Growth at Higher Altitudes |
To investigate whether altitude is associated with an increased risk of linear growth failure and to assess the implications associated with using the 2006 World Health Organization growth standards |
964,299 children aged 0 to 59 months |
Cross-sectional study |
An altitude increase of 1,000 m above sea level was associated with a 0.163 unit decrease in height/age index. |
Randell et al., 2020 |
Ethiopia |
Stunted from the start: Early life weather conditions and child undernutrition in Ethiopia |
To examine the relationship between climate conditions and child nutrition in Ethiopia |
23,000 children aged 1 to 4 years |
Cross-sectional study |
Higher precipitation during the rainy seasons early in life is associated with higher height for age. Furthermore, higher temperatures in utero, particularly during the first and third trimesters, and more rainfall during the third trimester, are positively associated with severe stunting, although stunting decreases with temperature in early life. There is potential evidence for a number of pathways underlying the climate-child nutrition relationship, including agricultural livelihoods, heat stress, infectious disease transmission, and women's time use during pregnancy. |
Nshimyiryo et al, 2019 |
Ruanda |
Risk factors for stunting among children under five years: a cross-sectional population-based study in Rwanda using the 2015 Demographic and Health Survey |
To identify risk factors for stunting in Rwanda. |
3,594 children under 5 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
In the adjusted analysis, the following factors were significant: boys, children 6 to 23 months and 24 to 59 months compared with ages 0-6 months, low birth weight, low maternal weight and height, primary schooling for mothers, illiterate mothers, poorer households. Family-level factors are the main drivers of stunting for children in Rwanda. |
Ismawati et al., 2020 |
Lamongan City, Indonésia |
Nutrition intake and causative factor of stunting among children aged under-5 years in Lamongan city |
To analyze nutritional intake and the factor that causes stunting in children under 5 years of age |
40 children under 5 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
The causative factor for short stature among children under 5 years of age was lower nutritional intake, infectious disease and parental characteristics. |
Campos et al., 2020 |
Mexico |
Association Between Breastfeeding and Child Stunting in Mexico. |
To examine the association between breastfeeding and other individual, family and environmental factors with stunting in children |
2,089 children between 6 and 35 months |
Cross-sectional study |
Low birth weight children, low maternal stature, greater number of children <5 years per family, and moderate to severe food insecurity were consistent risk factors for child stunting in all models. |
Dimitrova & Muttarak, 2020 |
India |
After the floods: Differential impacts of rainfall anomalies on child stunting in India |
To investigate the impact of climate variability on child malnutrition. |
220,823 children under 5 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
Excessive rainfall increases the risk of stunting in India. Children born into disadvantaged castes, poorer families and to less educated mothers are more likely to be affected than children born into less socially disadvantaged groups. |
Wu & Guo 2020 |
China |
An analysis of the nutritional status of left-behind children in rural China and the impact mechanisms of child malnutrition |
To investigate how the state of abandonment affects child malnutrition. |
7,459 rural children aged 0 to 15 years |
Cross-sectional study |
The results show that children whose mothers work are at higher risk for stunting and underweight Individual child factors (age, sex) and parental genetic factors (height, weight) have direct effects on rates of malnutrition and underweight children, while the parents' education indirectly influences through the mediator of family income and domestic facilities. |
Silveira et al., 2020 |
Brazil |
Malnutrition and associated factors among quilombola children under 60 months of age in two cities of the state of Maranhão, Brazil |
To assess the prevalence of short stature in children younger than 60 months |
372 children under 60 months |
Cross-sectional study |
Children whose mothers had short stature (< 1.497 m) were more likely to have a height-for-age déficit |
Baye & Hirvonen, 2020 |
Ethiopia |
Evaluation of Linear Growth at Higher Altitudes |
To investigate whether altitude is associated with an increased risk of linear growth failure and to assess the implications associated with using the 2006 World Health Organization growth standards |
964,299 children aged 0 to 59 months |
Cross-sectional study |
An altitude increase of 1,000 m above sea level was associated with a 0.163 unit decrease in height/age index. |
Randell et al., 2020 |
Ethiopia |
Stunted from the start: Early life weather conditions and child undernutrition in Ethiopia |
To examine the relationship between climate conditions and child nutrition in Ethiopia |
23,000 children aged 1 to 4 years |
Cross-sectional study |
Higher precipitation during the rainy seasons early in life is associated with higher height for age. Furthermore, higher temperatures in utero, particularly during the first and third trimesters, and more rainfall during the third trimester, are positively associated with severe stunting, although stunting decreases with temperature in early life. There is potential evidence for a number of pathways underlying the climate-child nutrition relationship, including agricultural livelihoods, heat stress, infectious disease transmission, and women's time use during pregnancy. |
Sk et al., 2021 |
Índia |
Nutritional status and concomitant factors of stunting among pre-school children in Malda, India: A micro-level study using a multilevel approach |
To know the risk factors for dwarfism among children aged 36 to 59 months in Malda. |
731 mothers and children aged between 36 and 59 months |
Cross-sectional study |
The interval between births, low birth weight, short duration of breastfeeding, the mother's low age, the mother's low education and occupation are the risk factors associated with stunting. |
Le & Nguyen, 2021 |
55 low and middle income countries |
In-utero Exposure to Rainfall Variability and Early Childhood Health |
To investigate the extent to which exposure to rainfall variability and shocks, including droughts and heavy rainfall events, in utero affects early childhood health |
600,000 children under five |
Cross-sectional study |
Rainfall variability negatively affects the anthropometric status of children under five years of age in 55 low- and middle-income countries, disadvantaged families, such as poor and uneducated families, are especially vulnerable to rainfall variability during pregnancy. |
Edwards et al., 2021 |
Philippines |
The influence of natural disasters on violence, mental health, food insecurity, and stunting in the Philippines: Findings from a nationally representative cohort |
To study impacts of exposure to multiple natural disasters on children's development |
4,952 children up to 10 years old |
Cohort |
Experiencing natural disasters was associated with higher levels of family violence in the last 12 months, parental stress, children witnessing physical violence and victims of physical abuse, short stature and greater food insecurity. |
Ayelign & Zerfu, 2021 |
Ethiopia |
Household, dietary and healthcare factors predicting childhood stunting in Ethiopia |
To determine the main factors associated with the risk of stunting among children under five in Ethiopia. |
1,023 children under 5 years old |
Cross-sectional study |
The results show that family and demographic factors, such as low maternal education, low wealth index, male gender of the child, lack of possession of a refrigerator and possession of a television and others such as the birth of twins, inappropriate material on the main floor of the house, unsuitable cooking fuel types were significantly associated with stunting. Among dietary factors, early initiation of breastfeeding; feeding with powdered or fresh milk; formula feeding; consumption of beta-carotene-rich meats and fruits and vegetables were significantly associated with lower odds of stunting. Inadequate prenatal care, deworming during pregnancy, institutional delivery, and inadequate birth size were among the health factors associated with stunted growth in children under five. |
Namirembe et al., 2022 |
Uganda |
Child stunting starts in utero: Growth trajectories and determinants in Ugandan infants |
To identify growth patterns in Ugandan babies and assess pre- and postnatal factors associated with each pattern. |
4,528 children up to 12 months |
Cohort |
The risk factors that increased the probability of being children with short stature were: increased home distance from a water source, being a poor home and being premature at birth. |
Lai et al., 2022 |
Cambodia |
Risk factors for early childhood growth faltering in rural Cambodia: a cross sectional study |
To determine risk factors for stunting by assessing child nutrition and water, sanitation and home hygiene (WASH) variables and their association with the nutritional status of children under 24 months of age in rural Cambodia. |
4,036 children under 24 months of age from 3,877 families (491 groups) |
Cross-sectional study |
The presence of soap and water at a household's handwashing station was positively associated with child growth; domestic use of an improved source of potable water and proper infant faeces disposal practices were protective against stunting. Among children 1-6 months of age: shared sanitation was negatively associated with growth; improved sanitation facilities were protective against dwarfism; and open defecation has been associated with dwarfism. |
Argaw et al., 2022 |
Ethiopia |
Stunting and associated factors among primary school children in Ethiopia: School-based cross-sectional study |
To assess the prevalence and factors associated with stunting among primary school children. |
500 children aged 6 to 14 years |
Cross-sectional study |
Stunting was significantly associated with low educational status, low dietary diversity, younger child age, larger family size, and dysfunctional families. |
Oliveira et al., 2022 |
Brazil |
Reduction of the height deficit and the purchase of food from family farming for school feeding in Brazil |
To analyze the effect of the direct purchase of food from family farming for school feeding on the height deficit in children under five years old |
4,488,230 children under 5 years old |
Ecological study |
For each percentage point of increase in the purchase of food from family farms for school meals, there was, on average, a decrease of 0.55 points in the prevalence of stunting. |
Bliznashka & Jeong, 2022 |
13 countries |
Investigating the direct and indirect associations between birth intervals and child growth and development: A cross-sectional analysis of 13 Demographic and Health Surveys |
To investigate the associations between birth intervals and child growth and development and to examine childhood illness, child diet and maternal stimulation as potential mechanisms. |
8,300 children aged 36 to 59 months |
Cross-sectional study |
Longer birth intervals (≥33 months) were associated with a higher height/age ratio (mean difference 0.23). |