Carbohydrates
|
Fabiani et al. 2016 (1616 Fabiani R, Minelli L, Bertarelli G, Bacci S. A Western Dietary Pattern Increases Prostate Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients. 2016; 8:626.) |
Systematic review and meta-analysis |
Twelve observational studies were included. Patterns of "healthy diet" versus "Western diet" were compared in the risk of PCa. The Western diet increased the risk of PCa (OR 1.34). Also, a carbohydrate pattern was associated with increased risk (OR 1.64). |
Jayedi et al. 2018 (1717 Jayedi A, Djafarian K, Rezagholizadeh F, Mirzababaei A, Hajimohammadi M, Shab-Bidar S. Fasting blood glucose and risk of prostate cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of dose-response. Diabetes Metab. 2018; 44:320-7.) |
Systematic review and meta-analysis |
Twelve thousand four hundred ninety-four cases of PCa were included. The association between fasting glucose levels and the risk of PCa was determined. Increases in fasting glucose were not associated with an increased risk of PCa when comparing the category of high versus low levels (RR 0.88) |
Masko et al. 2013 (1515 Masko EM, Allott EH, Freedland SJ. The relationship between nutrition and prostate cancer: is more always better? Eur Urol. 2013; 63:810-20.) |
Review |
Studies of ketogenic non-carbohydrate diets showed a decrease in tumor growth in animal models. Low-carb diets (20%) showed similar tumor and survival growth rates. Human studies on the effect of restricting carbohydrates on PCa are lacking. |
Karlin et al. 2017 (1818 Karlin NJ, Amin SB, Verona PM, Kosiorek HE, Cook CB. Co-existing prostate cancer and diabetes mellitus: implications for patient outcomes and care. Endocr Pract. 2017; 23:816-21.) |
Case-control |
They included 276 cases (patients with PCa and DM), 276 controls (patients with PCa without DM). Survival 5 years was 88% and 93% in patients with and without DM (HR 1.64). DM did not impact survival or PCa, and its treatment affected glycemic control. |
Proteins
|
Cross et al. 2005 (1919 Cross AJ, Peters U, Kirsh VA, Andriole GL, Reding D, Hayes RB, et al. A prospective study of meat and meat mutagens and prostate cancer risk. Cancer Res. 2005; 65:11779-84.) |
Prospective cohort |
Cooking red meats can lead to the formation of heterocyclic amines, which are mutagenic compounds that are generated when creatine, amino acids, and sugars are subjected to high temperatures. These compounds can trigger genomic instability from direct DNA damage. More than 10 g a day of cooked meat than not consuming it was associated with an increased risk of PCa 1.4 times. One of the heterocyclic amines was associated with an increased risk of PCa of 1.2 times. |
Koutros et al. 2008 (2020 Koutros S, Cross AJ, Sandler DP, Hoppin JA, Ma X, Zheng T, et al. Meat and meat mutagens and risk of prostate cancer in the Agricultural Health Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2008; 17:80-7.) |
Prospective cohort |
Six hundred sixty-eight patients with PCa (140 advanced) were included. Total meat consumption was associated with an increased risk of 1.26 times the incidence of PCa and 1.97 times the risk of advanced PCa when comparing the highest with the lowest consumption. |
Szymanski et al. 2010 (2121 Szymanski KM, Wheeler DC, Mucci LA. Fish consumption and prostate cancer risk: a review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010; 92:1223-33.) |
Systematic review and meta-analysis |
There was no association between fish consumption and reduced incidence of PCa. An association was found between fish consumption and a significant reduction of up to 63% in specific PCa mortality (RR 0.37). |
Hwang et al 2009 (2222 Hwang YW, Kim SY, Jee SH, Kim YN, Nam CM. Soy food consumption and risk of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Nutr Cancer. 2009; 61:598-606.); Applegate et al 2018 (2323 Applegate CC, Rowles JL, Ranard KM, Jeon S, Erdman JW. Soy Consumption and the Risk of Prostate Cancer: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients. 2018; 10:40.) |
Systematic review and meta-analysis |
Soy contains high amounts of phytoestrogens, which can block the estrogen receptor, decrease proliferation, and increase cell differentiation, impacting PCa prevention. There is a significant association between soy consumption with a lower risk of PCa. |
Lu et al. 2016 (2525 Lu W, Chen H, Niu Y, Wu H, Xia D, Wu Y. Dairy products intake and cancer mortality risk: a meta-analysis of 11 population-based cohort studies. Nutr J. 2016; 15:91.) |
Systematic review and meta-analysis |
The partnership between dairy consumption and PCa mortality was assessed. An RR of 1.50 was found for whole milk. Increased whole milk consumption showed a high risk of prostate cancer mortality (RR1.43) in dose-response form. |
Fats
|
Strom et al. 2008 (2626 Strom SS, Yamamura Y, Forman MR, Pettaway CA, Barrera SL, DiGiovanni J. Saturated fat intake predicts biochemical failure after prostatectomy. Int J Cancer. 2008; 122:2581-5.) |
Retrospective cohort |
The association between saturated fat consumption and PCa biochemical relapse was assessed. Patients with high consumption had more relapse (p=0.006) and had shorter relapse-free survival than patients with low consumption of saturated fats (26.6 vs. 44.7 months, respectively, p=0.002). |
Gathirua-Mwangi and Zhang 2014 (2727 Gathirua-Mwangi WG, Zhang J. Dietary factors and risk for advanced prostate cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2014; 23:96-109.) |
Systematic review |
Studies have shown that consuming saturated fats has been significantly associated with an increased risk of advanced PCa. |
Berquin et al. 2011 (2828 Berquin IM, Edwards IJ, Kridel SJ, Chen YQ. Polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism in prostate cancer. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2011; 30:295-309.) |
Review |
The increased proportion of unsaturated omega-6 fats versus omega-3s has been associated with an increased risk of PCa. Arachidonic acid is converted into other compounds that promote inflammation and cell growth. At the same time, omega-3 has anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, antiangiogenic, and proapoptotic effects, which place it as an excellent anti-tumor molecule. |
Vegetables
|
Liu et al. 2012 (3333 Liu B, Mao Q, Cao M, Xie L. Cruciferous vegetables intake and risk of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis. Int J Urol. 2012; 19:134-41.) |
Systematic review and meta-analysis |
The association between consumption of cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli or cauliflower, and the risk of PCa was assessed. A significant decrease in the risk of PCa (relative risk 0.90) was found. |
Wang et al. 2006 (3232 Wang LG, Liu XM, Chiao JW. Repression of androgen receptor in prostate cancer cells by phenethyl isothiocyanate. Carcinogenesis. 2006; 27:2124-32. Erratum in: Carcinogenesis. 2007; 28:767.) |
In vitro |
The effect of phenethyl isothiocyanate on the regulation of androgen receptor expression in PCa cells was studied. Cell growth was stopped, and androgen receptor expression decreased, mediating transcriptional and post-translational effects. |
Chan et al. 2009 (3434 Chan R, Lok K, Woo J. Prostate cancer and vegetable consumption. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2009; 53:201-16.) |
Review |
Vegetables of the genus allium, such as onion or garlic, can stimulate the immune system, inhibit cell growth, modulate the expression of androgen-responding genes and induce apoptosis so that they would play a protective role against PCa. However, their role in reducing the risk of PCa remains to be determined. |
Vitamins and minerals
|
Masko et al. 2013 (1515 Masko EM, Allott EH, Freedland SJ. The relationship between nutrition and prostate cancer: is more always better? Eur Urol. 2013; 63:810-20.) |
Review |
Excessive vitamin A consumption has been associated with an increased risk of developing aggressive PCa, but not with the disease. |
Tomaszewski et al. 2011 (3535 Tomaszewski JJ, Cummings JL, Parwani AV, Dhir R, Mason JB, Nelson JB, et al. Increased cancer cell proliferation in prostate cancer patients with high levels of serum folate. Prostate. 2011; 71:1287-93.) |
In vitro |
The level of serum folate and prostate tissue was evaluated and compared with cell proliferation. Serum folate levels correlated positively with folate content in tumor prostate tissue (p<0.03). Increased cell proliferation was found in patients with higher serum folate levels consistent with a higher incidence of PCa in patients receiving supplementation. |
Gaziano et al. 2009 (3636 Gaziano JM, Glynn RJ, Christen WG, Kurth T, Belanger C, MacFadyen J, et al. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of prostate and total cancer in men: the Physicians’ Health Study II randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009; 301:52-62.) |
Clinical trial |
Compared with placebo, Vitamin E did not affect the incidence of PCa (HR 0.97; 0.58). Nor was a significant effect of vitamin C found in PCa (HR 1.02; px0.80). |
Gilbert et al. 2011 (3737 Gilbert R, Martin RM, Beynon R, Harris R, Savovic J, Zuccolo L, et al. Associations of circulating and dietary vitamin D with prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Cancer Causes Control. 2011; 22:319-40.) |
Systematic review and meta-analysis |
In prospective studies, the OR for an increase of 1000 IU in daily intake was 1.14 for total PCa and 0.93 for aggressive PCa, and low vitamin D consumption could be associated with an increased risk of lethal PCa, no significant association with risk or its role in prevention or progression has been demonstrated. |
Klein et al. 2011 (3838 Klein EA, Thompson IM Jr, Tangen CM, Crowley JJ, Lucia MS, Goodman PJ, et al. Vitamin E and the risk of prostate cancer: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT). JAMA. 2011; 306:1549-56.) |
Clinical trial |
The long-term effect of vitamin E supplementation on the risk of PCa was sought. The vitamin E group was at increased risk of developing PCa (HR 1.17; 0.008). |
Nimptsch et al. 2008 (3939 Nimptsch K, Rohrmann S, Linseisen J. Dietary intake of vitamin K and risk of prostate cancer in the Heidelberg cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC-Heidelberg). Am J Clin Nutr. 2008; 87:985-92.) |
Prospective cohort |
A non-significant inverse association between vitamin K consumption and PCa (relative risk 0.65) was observed. The association was stronger for the advanced PCa (relative risk 0.37, p for the trend 0.03). |
Stratton et al. 2011 (4040 Stratton J, Godwin M. The effect of supplemental vitamins and minerals on the development of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Fam Pract. 2011; 28:243-52.) |
Systematic review and meta-analysis |
The use of multivitamin supplements, individual supplementation with vitamins or minerals did not affect PCa or the incidence of advanced or metastatic PCa or death by PCa. |
Phytochemicals
|
Xia et al. 2017 (4242 Xia J, Chen J, Xue JX, Yang J, Wang ZJ. An Up-to-date Meta-analysis of Coffee Consumption and Risk of Prostate Cancer. Urol J. 2017; 14:4079-88.) |
Systematic review and meta-analysis |
Consumption of coffee could reduce the risk of localized PCa (RR = 0.90, 95% CI: 0.84-0.97). |
Masko et al. 2013 (1515 Masko EM, Allott EH, Freedland SJ. The relationship between nutrition and prostate cancer: is more always better? Eur Urol. 2013; 63:810-20.) |
Review |
Epigallocatechin-gallate is the most abundant phytochemical of green tea. It has been described as reducing tumor growth in PCa, among other mechanisms such as induction of proapoptotic pathways, decreased inflammation through NF-kB, antioxidant properties. Its consumption could be associated with a lower incidence of PCa and a lower progression of precancerous lesions in dose-dependent form. |
Rowles et al. 2018 (4545 Rowles JL 3rd, Ranard KM, Applegate CC, Jeon S, An R, Erdman JW Jr. Processed and raw tomato consumption and risk of prostate cancer: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2018; 21:319-36.) |
Systematic review and meta-analysis |
A reduction in PCa incident risk was associated with high consumption of tomato and lycopene, a phytochemical of the carotenoid family, with antioxidant properties. The increase in tomato consumption was found to be inversely associated with the risk of PCa (RR 0.81, p=0.001), and a significant dose-response association was found. |