Analysis of modern approaches to the processing of poultry waste and by-products: prospects for use in industrial sectors

ZININA, Oksana; MERENKOVA, Svetlana; REBEZOV, Maksim

doi:10.1590/fst.03222

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Food Science and Technology

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Review Article • Food Sci. Technol 42 • 2022 • https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.03222 copy

Analysis of modern approaches to the processing of poultry waste and by-products: prospects for use in industrial sectors

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Abstract

Poultry processing is characterized by the accumulation of significant volumes of industrial waste (manure, waste from the incubation and slaughter of poultry, feathers, and carcasses). The overall purpose of this review is to analyze the current global practice of recycling poultry waste and by-products and to study the technological prospects for modifying their properties in terms of obtaining value-added products and preventing environmental pollution. Processing agricultural raw materials in a waste-free production cycle is based on certain economic and ecological aspects. The variety of morphological structures and chemical compositions of by-products and waste allows to obtain valuable components using a wide range of modern processing technologies. The use of recycled waste and by-products of poultry processing varies widely: from applications in food technologies to the production of biofuels. Many researchers strive to develop efficient technologies for converting secondary poultry products; a great deal of attention is paid to enzyme-based technologies, which have been improved significantly.

Keywords:
poultry processing; waste; by-product; manure; feather; value-added product

Direction of use	Advantages	Disadvantages	Reference
Application to the soil without preliminary treatment	Minimum financial costs; enhancing soil physical and hydraulic properties.	Odors and gaseous emissions (ammonia and methane); contamination of soil and water with hazardous substances such as antibiotics, pesticides, and pathogenic microorganisms; prolonged application of poultry manure into the soil can lead to contamination with phosphates and nitrates and cause phytotoxic effects.	Kyakuwaire et al. (2019)Kyakuwaire, M., Olupot, G., Amoding, A., Nkedi-Kizza, P., & Basamba, T. A. (2019). How safe is chicken litter for land application as an organic fertilizer? A review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(19), 3521. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193521. PMid:31547196. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193521...
Production of organic fertilizers	Reduction of the bulk and volume density of the soil and penetration resistance; increase in hydraulic conductivity and aggregate stability of the soil; growth of the content of soil organic matter, the content of available water, and the water-holding capacity; increase in the infiltration rate.	Obstacles consist of high moisture content and varying structure of poultry manure; which depend on the type and composition of manure due to seasonality and breeding regime.	Feng et al. (2019)Feng, G., Adeli, A., Read, J., McCarty, J., & Jenkins, J. (2019). Consequences of pelletized poultry litter applications on soil physical and hydraulic properties in reduced tillage, continuous cotton system. Soil & Tillage Research, 194, 104309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.104309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.1... ; Purnomo et al. (2017)Purnomo, C. W., Indarti, S., Wulandari, C., Hinode, H., & Nakasaki, K. (2017). Slow release fertiliser production from poultry manure. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 56, 1531-1536.
Composting combined with drying	Effects on rooting young cuttings, mycorrhization and strengthening the root system, insect eradication, biological protection of soil.	This leads to nitrogen loss through ammonia emission; causing emissions into the atmosphere of gaseous products such as methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide; high production costs for drying.	Achi et al. (2020)Achi, C. G., Hassanein, A., & Lansing, S. (2020). Enhanced biogas production of cassava wastewater using zeolite and biochar additives and manure co-digestion. Energies, 13(2), 491. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13020491. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13020491... ; Hassanein et al. (2019)Hassanein, A., Lansing, S., & Tikekar, R. (2019). Impact of metal nanoparticles on biogas production from poultry litter. Bioresource Technology, 275, 200-206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2018.12.048. PMid:30590206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.201...
Production of feed supplements	Heat treatment reduces the number of pathogenic microorganisms; recycled chicken manure can be used in animal feeding.	The challenge is to produce animal feed that meets the sanitary and veterinary requirements.	Blake & Hess (2014)Blake, J., & Hess, J. (2014). Suitability of poultry litter ash as a feed supplement for broiler chickens. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 23(1), 94-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/japr.2013-00836. http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/japr.2013-0083... ; Jackson et al. (2006)Jackson, D. J., Rude, B. J., Karanja, K. K., & Whitley, N. C. (2006). Utilization of poultry litter pellets in meat goat diets. Small Ruminant Research, 66(1-3), 278-281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2005.09.005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres....
Using as fuel for combustion	Poultry manure is used as a fuel to generate heat and electricity that can be utilized for the maintenance of poultry houses. This results in the reduction of costs of transportation and an increase in biological safety	High production costs.	Zapevalov et al. (2019)Zapevalov, M. V., Sergeyev, N. S., Redreev, G. V., Chetyrkin, Y. B., & Zapevalov, M. S. (2019). Technology of poultry manure utilization as a renewable energy source. IOP Conference Series. Materials Science and Engineering, 582(1), 012036. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/582/1/012036. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/582/...
Generating of the biochar	The increase in temperature promotes the formation and strengthening of the aromatic structure; biochar obtained at a pyrolysis temperature of about 300 ^oC is suitable for calcareous and acidic soils. Biochars can be used as composting additives, materials for immobilization of heavy metals, sorbents, soil improvers, or carbon sequestration additives.	An increase in temperature caused a decrease in production efficiency. Biochar at 400-500 ⁰C is strongly alkaline, which may limit its use in calcareous soils.	Liu et al. (2021)Liu, C., Yin, Z., Hu, D., Mo, F., Chu, R., Zhu, L., & Hu, C. (2021). Biochar derived from chicken manure as a green adsorbent for naphthalene removal. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 28(27), 36585-36597. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13286-x. PMid:33704645. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-132...
Biogas production	Chicken manure is characterized by the high content of dry organic matter – about 80%, which affects the efficient production of biogas and high methane content in biogas.	Low carbon to nitrogen ratio in the poultry manure; as well as the ammonia accumulation during the process, - results in anaerobic decomposition of uric acid and undigested proteins, - the two main forms of nitrogen; ammonium ions and free ammonia can suppress methanogenic activity; high content of hydrogen sulfide reduces the efficiency of anaerobic digestion and requires biogas to be processed before its further use.	Dróżdż et al. (2020)Dróżdż, D., Wystalska, K., Malinska, K., Grosser, A., Grobelak, A., & Kacprzak, M. (2020). Management of poultry manure in Poland – current state and future perspectives. Journal of Environmental Management, 264, 110327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110327. PMid:32217329. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020... ; Kanani et al. (2020)Kanani, F., Heidari, M. D., Gilroyed, B. H., & Pelletier, N. (2020). Waste valorization technology options for the egg and broiler industries: a review and recommendations. Journal of Cleaner Production, 262, 121129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020...

Type of by-product	Treatment method	Final product	Reference
Chicken legs	Extraction using the acetic acid in a concentration from 0.320% to 3.68%, processing time from 1.0 to 8.4 h and extraction temperature from 43.3 °C to 76.8 °C.	Gelatin, collagen films	Santana et al. (2020)Santana, J. C. C., Gardim, R. B., Almeida, P. F., Borini, G. B., Quispe, A. P. B., Llanos, S. A. V., Heredia, J. A., Zamuner, F. M. C., Gamarra, S., Farias, T. M. B., Ho, L. L., & Berssaneti, F. T. (2020). Valorization of chicken feet by-product of the poultry industry: high qualities of gelatin and biofilm from extraction of collagen. Polymers, 12(3), 529. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym12030529. PMid:32121646. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym12030529...
	Extraction of protein, incorporation of sorbitol, and glycerol as a plasticizer.	Edible film	Lee et al. (2015)Lee, J. H., Lee, J., & Song, K. B. (2015). Development of a chicken feet protein film containing essential oils. Food Hydrocolloids, 46, 208-215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2014.12.020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2014...
	Extraction using NaOH	Gelatin	Saenmuang et al. (2020)Saenmuang, S., Phothiset, S., & Chumnanka, C. (2020). Extraction and characterization of gelatin from black-bone chicken by-products. Food Science and Biotechnology, 29(4), 469-478. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10068-019-00696-4. PMid:32296557. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10068-019-006...
Chicken viscera, giblets	Hydrolysis of raw materials.	Protein hydrolysate for shrimp diets	Soares et al. (2020)Soares, M., Rezende, P. C., Corrêa, N. M., Rocha, J. S., Martins, M. A., Andrade, T. C., Fracalossi, D. M., & Vieira, F. N. (2020). Protein hydrolysates from poultry by-product and swine liver as an alternative dietary protein source for the Pacific white shrimp. Aquaculture Reports, 17, 100344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2020.100344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2020.1...
Chicken and turkey heads	Series of batch extractions at different temperatures (50 and 60 °C).	Gelatin	Gál et al. (2020)Gál, R., Mokrejš, P., Mrázek, P., Pavlačková, J., Janáčová, D., & Orsavová, J. (2020). Chicken heads as a promising by-product for preparation of food gelatins. Molecules, 25(3), 494. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25030494. PMid:31979349. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25030...
Mecha-nically deboned chicken meat residue	Сombination alkaline-acid extraction process (60, 70, and 80 °C).	Gelatin	Rammaya et al. (2012)Rammaya, K., Ying, V. Q., & Babji, A. S. (2012). Physicochemical analysis of gelatin extracted from mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDCM) residue. International Journal of Food, Nutrition and Public Health, 5(1-2-3), 147-168. http://dx.doi.org/10.47556/J.IJFNPH.5.1-2-3.2012.9. http://dx.doi.org/10.47556/J.IJFNPH.5.1-...
	Acid concentration of 6.73% and an extraction temperature of 86.8 °C for 1.95 h.	Gelatin	Rafieian et al. (2013)Rafieian, F., Keramat, J., & Kadivar, M. (2013). Optimization of gelatin extraction from chicken deboner residue using RSM method. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 50(2), 374-380. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-011-0355-7. PMid:24425930. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-011-035...
	48-72 h of enzyme conditioning time, 73-78 °C gelatin extraction temperature, and 100-150 min gelatin extraction time.	Gelatin	Mokrejš et al. (2021)Mokrejš, P., Gál, R., Pavlačková, J., & Janáčová, D. (2021). Valorization of a by-product from the production of mechanically deboned chicken meat for preparation of gelatins. Molecules, 26(2), 349. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26020349. PMid:33445455. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26020...
Chicken skin	Acetic acid extraction (3% v/v), extraction temperature 60 °C.	Gelatin	Sompie & Triasih (2018)Sompie, M., & Triasih, A. (2018). Effect of extraction temperature on characteristics of chicken legskin gelatin. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 102, 012089. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/102/1/012089. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/102/...
	Extraction of fat (separate with the basket of the pressure cooker and separate into layers using chloroform), vacuum filtration for oil recovered	Biodiesel	Abid & Touzani (2017)Abid, M., & Touzani, M. (2017). First step of waste chicken skin valorization by production of biodiesel in Morocco. Journal of Materials and Environmental Science, 8, 2372-2380.
	Isolation of elastin, preparation of its hydrolyzate using elastase	Elastin-based hydrolysate	Nadalian et al. (2019)Nadalian, M., Kamaruzaman, N., Yusop, M. S. M., Babji, A. S., & Yusop, S. M. (2019). Isolation, purification and characterization of antioxidative bioactive elastin peptides from poultry skin. Food Science of Animal Resources, 39(6), 966-979. http://dx.doi.org/10.5851/kosfa.2019.e90. PMid:31950112. http://dx.doi.org/10.5851/kosfa.2019.e90...
	Fat removal, grinding, and heating up to 40-60 °С, collagen extraction with pepsin or ethylenediamine.	Collagen high in telopeptides	Cliché et al. (2003)Cliché, S., Amiot, J., Avezard, C., & Gariepy, C. (2003). Extraction and characterization of collagen with or without telopeptides from chicken skin. Poultry Science, 82(3), 503-509. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ps/82.3.503. PMid:12705413. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ps/82.3.503...
Chicken fat	Transesterification with methanol as alcohol and KOH as the catalyst.	Biodiesel	Mahyari et al. (2021)Mahyari, Z. F., Khorasanizadeh, Z., Khanali, M., & Mahyari, K. F. (2021). Biodiesel production from slaughter wastes of broiler chicken: a potential survey in Iran. SN Applied Sciences, 3(1), 57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-04045-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-040...
Chicken fat	Epoxidation with peracetic acid was generated in situ by using hydrogen peroxide and acetic acid, at 60 °C for 6 h.	Biolubricant	Hernández-Cruz et al. (2021)
Chicken lung	Ultrasound extraction.	Collagen	Zou et al. (2020)Zou, Y., Yang, H., Zhang, X., Xu, P., Jiang, D., Zhang, M., Xu, W., & Wang, D. (2020). Effect of ultrasound power on extraction kinetic model, and physicochemical and structural characteristics of collagen from chicken lung. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition, 2(1), 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s43014-019-0016-1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s43014-019-001...
Сhicken intestine	Treatment with acetone at the ratio of 1:1.5 (intestine:acetone).	Proteolytic Enzymes with high protease activity	Raj & Mahendrakar (2010)Raj, K. R., & Mahendrakar, N. S. (2010). Effect of ensiling and organic solvents treatment on proteolytic enzymes of layer chicken intestine. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 47(3), 320-324. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-010-0051-z. PMid:23572645. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-010-005...
Сhicken intestine	Hydrolysis at a reaction temperature of 533 K, reaction time 28 min, H₂SO₄ concentration in the reagent system 0.02 wt%.	Amino acid	Zhu et al. (2010)Zhu, G., Zhu, X., Wan, X., Fan, Q., Ma, Y., Qian, J., Liu, X., Shen, Y., & Jiang, J. (2010). Hydrolysis technology and kinetics of poultry waste to produce amino acids in subcritical water. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 88(2), 187-191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2010.04.005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2010.04...
Chicken bone	Low-energy consumption pyrolysis process.	Biochar, adsorbent	Yang et al. (2020)Yang, T., Han, C., Tang, J., & Luo, Y. (2020). Removal performance and mechanisms of Cr(VI) by an in-situ self-improvement of mesoporous biochar derived from chicken bone. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 27(5), 5018-5029. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07116-4. PMid:31848961. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-071...
Chicken bone	Pyrolyze at 600 °C.	Adsorbent for Pb removal in waste water	Park et al. (2019)Park, J. H., Wang, J. J., Kim, S. H., Kang, S. W., Cho, J. S., Delaune, R. D., Ok, Y. S., & Seo, D. C. (2019). Lead sorption characteristics of various chicken bone part-derived chars. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 41(4), 1675-1685. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10653-017-0067-7. PMid:29344748. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10653-017-006...

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[1] *Corresponding author: merenkovasp@susu.ru