Minerals, antinutrients content and the bioaccessibility of iron and zinc in cooked, spontaneously fermented-dried, and blanched-dried dark green leafy vegetables commonly consumed in Sub-Saharan Africa

MONGWAKETSE, Tiyapo; KRUGER, Johanita; LEWIES, Angelique; BAUMGARTNER, Jeannine; MATTHEUS SMUTS, Cornelius

doi:10.1590/fst.37921

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Original Article • Food Sci. Technol 42 • 2022 • https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.37921 copy

Minerals, antinutrients content and the bioaccessibility of iron and zinc in cooked, spontaneously fermented-dried, and blanched-dried dark green leafy vegetables commonly consumed in Sub-Saharan Africa

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Abstract

Iron and zinc deficiencies remain a significant problem in sub-Saharan Africa. This study aimed at determining mineral, antinutrient contents of differently processed ALVs, and the bioaccessibility of iron and zinc from cooked, blanched-dried, as well as spontaneously fermented-dried ALVs. Mineral and antinutrient contents of ALVs were analysed and the bioaccessibility of iron and zinc from ALVs were analysed by in vitro dialysability assay. Iron, zinc, magnesium, and calcium contents of the ALVs were high. Compared to cooked vegetables, both spontaneously fermented-dried and blanched-dried vegetables had significantly lower levels of condensed tannins, while significantly lower total phenolic contents were found in blanched-dried vegetables. Compared to cooked counterparts, percentage iron and zinc bioaccessibilities in spontaneously fermented-dried and blanched-dried ALVs showed no significant (p > 0.05) differences except for iron in Ethiopian kale and zinc in amaranth. Based on data from this study, it is recommended that ALVS should be consumed concurrently with iron and zinc enhancers to enhance bioaccessibility.

Keywords:
traditional leafy vegetables; dialysability; mineral; preservation; nutritive value

Vegetable		Fe	Zn	Mg	Ca	P	Al
Vegetable		mg/100 g, db
CP	COO	29.7 ± 0.6^b*	2.9 ± 0.1^a*	301 ± 5^a*	1840 ± 33^a*	340 ± 6^b*	32.4 ± 0.6^c*
	BLA	18.1 ± 0.1^a	3.0 ±0.3^a	268 ± 7^a	1850 ± 30^a	337 ± 4^b	13.5 ± 0.2^a
	FER	28.5 ± 0.5^b	3.4 ± 0.1^b	343 ± 4^b	2220 ± 33^b	303 ± 4^a	25.6 ± 0.6^b
SP	COO	61.7 ± 1.2^c*	12.0 ± 0.2^b*	437 ± 8^b*	2456 ± 43^a*	614 ± 11^a	75.8 ± 1.4^c*
	BLA	40.0 ± 0.5^a	11.8 ± 0.1^b	350 ± 1^a	2381 ± 29^a	617 ± 4^a	45.3 ± 0.1^a
	FER	52.8 ± 1.0^b	11.2 ± 0.1^a	377 ± 5^a	2660 ± 51^b	601 ± 3^a	56.0 ± 1.1^b
WJ	COO	29.5 ± 0.4^c*	3.7 ± 0.0^a	573 ± 1^b	1422 ± 10^a*	648 ± 7^b*	30.8 ± 0.3^c*
	BLA	10.4 ± 0.4^a	3.5 ± 0.1^a	528 ± 12^a	2452 ± 93^b	454 ± 10^a	6.4 ± 0.0^a
	FER	16.4 ± 0.3^b	4.5 ± 0.0^b	640 ± 7^c	2782 ± 29^c	570 ± 6^c	14.2 ± 0.3^b
A	COO	30.0 ± 0.6^b*	6.4 ± 0.0^b*	1365 ± 12^b*	1995 ± 21^b*	477 ± 3^a*	39.0 ± 0.4^c*
	BLA	26.4 ± 0.0^a	6.8 ± 0.1^c	1556 ± 7^c	1985 ± 11^b	570 ± 14^b	26.2 ± 0.3^a
	FER	33.2 ± 0.7^c	6.0 ± 0.1^a	1254 ± 16^a	1730 ± 28^a	476 ± 6^a	34.1 ± 0.1^b
EK	COO	13.4 ± 0.3^a	4.1 ± 0.1^a	561 ± 11^c	2890 ± 54^b	565 ± 11^b	9.7 ± 0.2^a
	BLA	20.0 ± 1.0^b	5.1 ± 0.1^b	421 ± 13^a	2216 ± 83^a	521 ± 2^a	42.3 ± 1.4^c
	FER	24.5 ± 0.2^c	5.2 ± 0.1^b	521 ± 10^b	2928 ± 34^b	555 ± 14^b	21.2 ± 0.3^b

		Condensed Tannins	Total Phenolics	Total oxalates	Soluble oxalates	Insoluble oxalates	Phytates
Vegetable		mg CE /100 g, db		mg/100 g, db
	COO	137 ± 14^b	2022 ± 83^a*	3349 ± 224^b*	2967 ± 181^b*	382 ± 68^a	2263 ± 189^a
CP	BLA	174 ± 17^c	2083 ± 155^a	2226 ±177^a	2039 ± 58^a	187 ± 229^a	2131 ± 297^a
	FER	58 ± 5^a	2612 ± 55 ^b	2111 ± 51^a	2031 ± 49^a	80 ± 36^a	2025 ± 263^a
	COO	172 ± 7^b*	2040 ± 25^a*	2502 ± 55^c	2400 ± 64^c	102 ± 107^a	2437 ± 272^b
SP	BLA	140 ± 8 ^a	1951 ± 92^a	1862 ± 212^b	804 ± 24^a	1058 ± 226^b	1848 ± 272^a
	FER	129 ± 9^a	3022 ± 293^b	1272 ± 36^a	1234 ± 20^b	37 ± 55^a	1831 ± 246^a
	COO	220 ± 22^b*	2491 ± 222^a*	3835 ± 403^c*	2470± 119^b	1361 ± 409^b*	2140 ± 408^a
WJ	BLA	116 ± 12^a	2106 ± 74^a	1754 ±178^a	812 ± 21^a	943 ± 199^b	2296 ± 386^a
	FER	132 ± 13^a	2204 ± 176^a	2629 ± 227^b	2433 ± 43^b	196 ± 206^a	2194 ± 418^a
	COO	144 ± 16^b	1655 ± 95^a*	4680 ± 242^c*	4113 ± 197^c	567 ± 45^a	4408 ± 213^b
AM	BLA	132 ± 10^b	1857 ± 181^a	2126 ±87^a	1640 ± 25^a	485 ± 97^a	3866 ± 538^ab
	FER	78 ± 8 ^a	1637 ± 110^a	3408 ± 43^b	3219 ± 112^b	189 ± 78^a	3429 ± 532^a
	COO	147 ± 9^a	1103 ± 86^a	2627 ± 92^c	2334 ± 109^c	293 ± 72^b	1977 ± 90^a
EK	BLA	135 ± 14^a	1020 ± 95^a	1633 ± 24^b	408 ± 10^a	1226 ± 32^c	1751 ± 126^a
	FER	223 ± 18^b	1168 ± 103^a	843 ± 24^a	806 ± 17^b	37 ± 25^a	1831 ± 246^a

Vegetable #		Bioaccessibility (%)		Amount bioaccessible (mg/100 g, db)
Vegetable #		Fe	Zn	Fe	Zn
CP	COO	3.9 ± 0.5^a	35.7 ± 4.4^a	1.15 ± 0.14^a	1.04 ± 0.13^a
	BLA	2.1 ± 0.9^a	24.2 ± 10.8^a	0.38 ± 0.17^a	0.73 ± 0.32^a
	FER	3.7 ± 1.3^a	30.8 ± 5.4^a	1.06 ± 0.86^a	1.02 ± 0.66^a
SP	COO	2.1 ± 0.7^a	15.7 ± 5.2^a	1.30 ± 0.42^a	1.88 ± 0.62^a
	BLA	1.8 ± 0.3^a	18.2 ± 5.3^a	0.71 ± 0.12^a	2.14 ± 0.62^a
	FER	1.5 ± 0.3^a	17.0 ± 3.0^a	0.80 ± 0.16^a	1.90 ± 0.33^a
WJ	COO	1.6 ± 0.6^a	22.5 ± 10.0^a	0.47 ± 0.19^a*	0.83 ± 0.37^a
	BLA	4.4 ± 0.6^a	25.1 ± 7.9^a	0.46 ± 0.06^a	0.89 ± 0.28^a
	FER	2.3 ± 0.2^a	12.2 ± 1.3^a	0.37 ± 0.03^a	0.55 ± 0.05^a
A	COO	10.7 ± 2.3^a	8.4 ± 4.6^a	3.20 ± 0.68^b*	0.54 ± 0.30^a
	BLA	7.8 ± 0.4^a	18.0 ± 16.3^b	2.06 ± 0.64^a	1.23 ± 1.10^a
	FER	11.5 ± 4.7^a	16.6 ± 10.1^b	3.81 ± 1.26^b	1.00 ± 0.61^a
EK	COO	15.3 ± 3.6 ^b	40.9 ± 8.6 ^a	2.05 ± 0.38^b	1.67 ± 0.35^a
	BLA	2.5 ± 1.9^a	16.6 ± 13.5^a	0.51 ± 0.37^a	0.85 ± 0.68^a
	FER	2.6 ± 1.1^a	22.3 ± 7.0^a	0.63 ± 0.26^a	1.16 ± 0.36^a

Molar ratios		CP	SP	WJ	A	EK
PA: Zn ¹ 1 (mg phytate/MW of phytate: mgZn/MW of Zn);	COO	78	20	48	69	47
	BLA	69	16	58	56	34
	FER	60	15	48	57	35
PA: Fe ² 2 (mg phyate/MW of phytate: mgFe/MW of Fe);	COO	7	3	6	13	13
	BLA	10	4	19	12	7
	FER	6	3	11	9	6
PA x Ca/ Zn ³ 3 (mg phytate/MW of phytate x mg Ca/MW of Ca / mg Zn/MW of Zn).	COO	3585	1232	2038	3406	3419
	BLA	3187	921	3930	2789	1876
	FER	3316	982	3352	2443	2547

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[1] *Corresponding author: mongwaketset@gmail.com