Quantitative ethnomedicinal study and conservation status of medicinal flora used by the indigenous peoples of Sultan Khail valley, Dir Upper, Pakistan

Rahman, K.; Akhtar, N.; Subhan, F.; Ali, K.

doi:10.1590/1519-6984.267583

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Original Article • Braz. J. Biol. 83 • 2023 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.267583 copy

Quantitative ethnomedicinal study and conservation status of medicinal flora used by the indigenous peoples of Sultan Khail valley, Dir Upper, Pakistan

Estudo etnomedicinal quantitativo e estado de conservação da flora medicinal utilizada pelos povos indígenas do vale Sultan Khail, Dir Upper, Paquistão

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

The present study was conducted to explore the ethnomedicinal uses, quantitative analysis and conservation status of medicinal flora of Sultan Khail valley, Dir Upper, Pakistan. The data was collected during 2017-2019 using a semi-structured questionnaire. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant species were determined and the plant species were classified based on habits, parts used, and method of preparation of remedies. Frequency of citation (FC), relative frequency of citation (RFC) and family importance values (FIV) were calculated. The plant species were assessed for their conservation status as per IUCN standard criteria. The inhabitants of the Sultan Khail valley use 88 plant species belonging to 57 families for the treatment of different human diseases. Lamiaceae was the dominant family represented with 8 medicinal species (9%) followed by Rosaceae (5 species, 6%). The most commonly used plant parts were leaves (33.1%) followed by fruits (16.1%), while the main method of remedy preparation was decoctions (33.3%). The highest RFC value was recorded for Geranium wallichianum (0.47), followed by Berberis lycium (0.44). Lamiaceae was the most cited family (FIV, 231), followed by Polygonaceae (73). Five plant species were found to be endangered, 39 species were vulnerable, 32 species were rare, and 12 species were found to be infrequent. The medicinal flora of the area is under severe biotic pressure and needs proper conservation; otherwise, they will be lost in the near future.

Keywords:
ethnomedicinal flora; Frequency of citation; relative frequency of citation; family importance value; conservation status; Sultan Khail valley; Dir Upper; Pakistan

S. no	Taxon	Local name	Habit	Part use	Mode of remedies preparation	FC	RFC	FIV	Uses	Conservation [[Q6: Q6]]status
S. no	I. Pteriddophytes									Conservation [[Q6: Q6]]status
1	Adiantaceae							7.9
	Adiantum capillus-veneris L.	Sumbal	H	Whole plant	Juice	11	0.08		Juice is use for constipation, pneumonia, and scorpion bites.	R
2	Equisetaceae							24.3
	Equisetum arvense L.	Bndaky	H	Whole plant	Juice	34	0.24		Juice extract is used to treat kidney stones.	V
	II. Gymnosperm
3	Cupressaceous							6.4
	Cupressus sempervirens L.	Sarwa	T	Cone	Powder	9	0.06		The fruit is powdered, soaked in water and used as an anthelmintic and astringent.	V
4	Pinaceae							55
	Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jackson.	Ghwargi	T	Resin	Crude form	29	0.21		The resin is mixed with butter and eaten before meals and is used in the treatment of facial acne, warts, and the expulsion of worms.	V
	Abies pindrow Royle.	Achar	T	Resin	Crude form	22	0.16		The resin is mixed with butter to treat warts and facial acne.	R
	Cedrus deodara (Roxb. Ex. D. Don) G. Don	deyar	T	Resin, oils	Crude form	26	0.19		Resin is mixed with yoghurt and used as an anthelmentic. Oil in a small amount is taken in water and used as a refrigerant, antiseptic, and antipyretic.	V
5	Taxaceae							13.6
	Taxus wallichiana Zucc.	Belanzai	T	leaves	Decoction	19	0.14		Leaves are boiled in water and used in hysteria and epilepsy.	V
	III. Angiosperm
	i. Monocotyledonae
6	Alliaceae							55.7
	Allium cepa L.	Piyaz	H	leaves, bulb	Juice, Crude form	35	0.25		The bulb is used as an antiseptic. The leaves are diuretic and anthelmintic.	V
	Allium sativum L.	Oga	H	Leaves, bulb	Crude form, decoction	43	0.31		The bulb is eaten with bread to treat high blood pressure, heart diseases, and cough. The juice from the leaves and the bulb are also used as an approdiasic.	V
7	Amaryllidacae							11.4
	Narcissus tazetta L.	Gulingas	H	Flowers	Juice	16	0.11		The juice of the flowers is antiallergic, purgative, and emetic.	R
8	Araceae							25
	Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott	Marjarai	H	Rhizome, fruit	Juice	18	0.13		The juice of fresh rhizome is used against snake bite.	R
	Sauromatum venosum (Dryand. ex Aiton) Kunth	Marjaraibraga	H	Rhizome	Juice	17	0.12		The juice of fresh rhizome is used against snake bite.	V
9	Asparagaceae							15
	Asparagus gracilis Royle	Halon	S	Whole plant	Decoction	21	0.15		Boiled in water and used as a diuretic and an aphrodisiac agent.	V
10	Liliaceae							20.7
	Polygonatum verticillatum All.	Wormal	H	Rhizome	Crude form	29	0.21		The fresh rhizome is used to treat rheumatism and as an aphrodisiac.	V
11	Poaceae							15.7
	Avena fatua L.	Jawdar	H	Seeds	Decoction	8	0.06		Boiled in water and used as an emollient, refrigerant, and diuretic.	R
	Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.	Kabal	H	Whole plant	Decoction, poultice	14	0.1		Boiled along with rose flowers and used in the treatment of jaundice and dysentery. A poultice is used to treat piles.	R
	ii. Dicotyledonae
12	Anacardiaceae							20.7
	Pistacia chinensis Bunge.	Sharna	T	Bark	Decoction	29	0.21		Bark is boiled in water and used for curing wounds, hepatitis, and loss of appetite.	V
13	Apiaceae							64.3
	Coriandrum sativum L.	Dhanya	H	Leaves, fruits	Crude form, powder, decoction	46	0.33		Leaf decoction is used in colic, as well as used as a carminative, diuretic, tonic, stomachic, and as a digestive stimulant.	R
	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Kaga	H	Leaves, fruits	Crude form, powdere, juice	44	0.31		Leaves and fruits are boiled in water or powder is mixed with little sugar and used in gastrointestinal disorders, abdominal pain, as wormicides and as digestive stimulants.	R
14	Apocynacae							9.3
	Nerium oleander L.	Ganderay	S	Roots, leaves, flower	Poultice	13	0.09		Boiled in water and used externally for skin diseases.	V
15	Asclepiadaceae							15
	Calotropis procera (Willd.) R. Brown	Spalmy	S	Leaves, latex	Powder	21	0.15		Powder is mixed with butter and used to treat nausea, flu, and colds.	R
16	Asteraceae							32.1
	Artemisia santolinifolia Turez ex Krasch	Tarkha	H	leaves	Juice	26	0.19		Used as a cooling agent and in worm expulsion in children.	R
	Calendula arvensis L.	Ziargulay	H	Leaves, flowers	Powder	19	0.14		The powder of flowers and leaves is used for the treatment of scrofula. It is also used as an anthelmintic and tonic.	I
17	Berberidaceae							44.3
	Berberis lycium Royle	Kwaray	S	Root bark, leaves, fruits	Powder	62	0.44		Drank after being soaked in water to treat diabetes, wound healing, bone fracture, pain, and diarrhea	V
18	Brassicaceae							11.4
	Nasturtium officinale R. Br.	Talmera	H	Whole plant	Decoction	16	0.11		Leaves are boiled in water and used as blood purifiers, diuretics, antiscorbics, and expectorants.	R
19	Buxaceae							33.6
	Sarcococca saligna (Don) Muell.	Shenolay	S	leaves	Juice	47	0.34		Fresh juice is used to treat hepatitis and diabetes. Also lower cholesterol level.	R
20	Cannabaceae							18.6
	Cannabis sativa L.	Bhang	H	leaves	Juice	26	0.19		The juice extract of the leaves is mixed with sugar and used as a refrigerant, sedative, pain reliever, and ulcer treatment.	I
21	Chenopodiaceae							63.6
	Chenopodium album L.	Sarmai	H	Shoots	Decoction	17	0.12		The leaves are cooked and used for constipation and hepatitis.	I
	Chenopodium ambrosioides L.	Skhabotay	H	leaves	Decoction, juice	33	0.24		Decoction of leaves is used for the treatment of fever and germs.	I
	Chenopodium botrys L.	Kharawa	H	leaves	Juice, powder	39	0.28		Mixed with the mother's milk to control children's constipation. It is also used as an anthelmintic. The dried form of leaves is used to cure dysentery, odema, diarrhea, and hepatitis.	I
22	Euphorbiaceae							35
	Euphorbia helioscopia L.	Mandano	H	Latex, leaves	Powder	19	0.14		The powder is taken with water to treat intestinal problems and constipation. Milky latex is roasted with an additive and applied to the skin to treat skin eruptions.	I
	Andrachne cordifolia (Wall.exDcne.) Muell. Avg.	Klachay	S	Leaves	Decoction	12	0.09		Boiled in water and used to treat diabetes.	I
	Ricinus communis L.	Arhanda	S	Roots, leaves, seed	Decoction, poultice	18	0.13		The decoction of leaves is poisonous, emetic, and purgative. The poultice leaves are applied to swellings. The seeds are sedative. Roots are useful for constipation and rheumatism.	V
23	Fagaceae							50
	Quercus baloot Griffth.	Seri	T	Fruits	Powder	39	0.28		When combined with honey, the powder is used to treat joint pain and urinary tract infections.	V
	Quercus incana Roxb.	Banj	T	Bark	Powder	31	0.22		Powder is mixed with honey and used for bone fractures and urinary disorders.	V
24	Fumaraceae							22.9
	Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) H.N.	Papra	H	Whole plant	Decoction, juice	32	0.23		The juice or decoction has antipyretic, blood purifying, diaphoretic, and refrigerant properties. Also used to treat whooping cough, sore throat, and malaria.	V
25	Geraniaceae							47.1
	Geranium wallichianum D. Don. Ex Sweet	Sra Zeela	H	Rhizome	Powder	66	0.47		Rhizome’s powder is mixed with wheat flour, sugar, and desi ghee and cooked to make halwa. It is an efficient astringent, used for chronic dysentery, diarrhea, passive hemorrhages, backaches, and leucorrhoea.	V
26	Hypericaceae							35
	Hypericum perforatum L.	Shin Chai	H	Whole plant	Decoction	49	0.35		Decoction is used for diarrhea, gastric disorders, and irregular menstruation.	R
27	Juglandaceae							12.9
	Juglans regia L.	Ghuz	T	Bark	Decoction	18	0.13		Decoction is used for wound healing.	V
28	Lamiaceae							231.4
	Ajuga bracteosa Wall. Ex Benth.	Gooti	H	Whole plant	Juice	54	0.39		Fresh plant juice is used to treat jaundice, hypertension, and sore throat.	R
	Mentha arvensis L.	Podina	H	Whole plant	Juice, powder	44	0.31		Powder or juice of the whole plant is mixed with curd and used to treat indigestion, vomiting, and abdominal pain.	R
	Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds.	welanay	H	leaves	Powder, juice	52	0.37		Powder is soaked in water or mixed with sugar and used as a carminative. It is also used to treat indigestion, vomiting and cholera.	R
	Micromeria biflora Benth.	Naraybotay	H	Whole plant	Juice	29	0.21		Juice from fresh plants is used to treat stomach disorders.	R
	Origanum vulgare L.	Da Ghar Zankai	H	Whole plant	Decoction, crude form	17	0.12		Decoction is diuretic and is also used to treat toothaches and earaches.	R
	Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Bth.	Kharghoag	H	leaves	Poultice	37	0.26		Leaf poultice is used for wound healing.	I
	Teucrium stocksianum Boiss.	Sperbotay	H	Whole plant	Juice	45	0.32		Juice from fresh plants is taken before meals for weight loss. It is also used to treat diabetes and stomach disorders.	V
	Thymus linearis Bth. Ssp. Linearis Jalas	Da ghar sperkai	H	whole plant	Decoction	46	0.33		The decoction is used to treat hepatitis, diabetes, colds, coughs, bronchial troubles, and to lower cholesterol.	V
29	Malvaceae							5.7
	Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench.	Bendi	H	Fruite, mucilage	Juice	8	0.06		The juice of fruit and mucilage is used to treat joint pains.	R
30	Meliaceae							30
	Melia azedarach L.	Watani Shandai	T	Leaves	Decoction	42	0.3		The leaves' decoction is antidiabetic, a blood purifier and a wormifuge.	R
31	Moraceae							45
	Ficus palmata Forssk.	Inzar	T	Fruits	Crude form	24	0.17		Fruit is mixed with milk and used for the removal of wort. It is also used to treat stomach disorders and constipation.	V
	Morus alba L.	Spin toot	T	Fruits	Crude form	17	0.12		Fresh fruit is used to treat constipation and improve digestion.	V
	Morus nigra L.	Toor toot	T	Fruit	Crude form	22	0.16		Fresh fruit is used as laxative, cooling agent and also used to treat cough.	V
32	Myrsinaceae							37.1
	Myrsine africana L.	Manogaya	S	Leaves, fruits	Juice, powder	52	0.37		Fresh leaves and fruit juice or powder are soaked in water and used as an anthelmintic.	R
33	Myrtaceae							30.7
	Myrtus communis L.	Manno	S	Leaves, seeds	Decoction	43	0.31		The leaves are boiled in water along with ghur and used to treat diarrhoea and stomach pain.	V
34	Nyctaginaceae							7.1
	Mirabilis jalapa L	Mazigargulay	H	Roots	Decoction, juice, powder	10	0.07		The decoction, juice, and powder are used as purgatives, emetic, and cathartics.	V
35	Oleaceae							37.9
	Olea ferruginea Royle.	Khona	T	Leaves, fruits	Juice	53	0.38		Fruit juice is used in diabetes. The leaves are used to treat sore throats and toothaches.	V
36	Oxalidaceae							20
	Oxalis corniculata L.	Garday Taruky	H	Whole plant	Juice	28	0.2		Juice from fresh plants is used to treat stomach disorders and skin inflammation.	R
37	Fabaceae							20.7
	Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex Brand.	Ghoraja	S	Roots bark, leaves, flowers	Decoction, powder, juice	29	0.21		Decoction, powder, or juice are used to treat abdominal pain.	V
38	Platanaceae							9.3
	Platanus orientalis L.	Chinar	T	Bark	Decoction	13	0.09		Decoction of bark is mixed with vinegar and used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, rheumatism, and toothaches.	E
39	Polygonaceae							72.9
	Rumex dentatus L.	Shalkhay	H	Leaves	Decoction	41	0.29		Leaves are boiled in water and used for skin rashes and wound healing.	I
	Rumex hastatus D.Don	Tarokai	H	Leaves	Juice	26	0.19		Juice from fresh plants is used as a purgative. It is also used to treat skin diseases and arthritis.	I
	Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Green	Spenshalkhay	H	Leaves, shoots	Decoction	22	0.16		The decoction of leaves and shoots is used to treat ulcers. It is also used as a carminative and tonic.	I
	Polygonum barbatum L.	Palpoluk.	H	Leaves	Decoction	13	0.09		Leaves are boiled in water and used for skin diseases.	R
40	Primulaceae							8.6
	Primula denticulata Wight.	Chautargulay	H	Leaves, Rhizome	Decoction, powder	12	0.09		Rhizome powder is mixed with honey and vinegar and is applied for leucoderma, bacterial and ophthalmic diseases.	V
41	Punicaceae							27.1
	Punica grantaum L.	Anunghoray	T	Leaves, bark, fruits	Powder, crude form	38	0.27		Fresh leaves are crushed and the extract is used for dysentery and checking for bleeding from the nose. Fruit is an astringent, laxative, cooling agent, and blood purifier. The bark of stems and roots is anthelmintic and antipyretic.	E
42	Ranunculaceae							40.7
	Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. Ex Royle	Sarbawali	H	Rhizome, flower	Decoction, powder	57	0.41		Decoction or powder of rhizome along with mutton is given to weak children to enhance their growth and physique.	E
43	Rhamnaceae							35.7
	Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight &Arn.	Badra	S	Leaves, fruit	Decoction, juice, poultice	25	0.18		Leaves and fruits are boiled in water and used to treat ulcers and skin infections; the fruit is edible, astringent, and a cooling agent.	V
	Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.	Markha	T	Leaves, fruits	Decoction, juice	25	0.18		Fruits are boiled in water and used as a blood purifier and a carminative. Leaves' juice is used to make a plaster in strangury.	V
44	Rosaceae							70.7
	Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke	Gongrus	H	Leaves, fruit	Crude form, juice	24	0.17		Leaves and fruits are diuretic, astringent, and refrigerant. The leaves' extracts are used to treat coughs and sore throats.	R
	Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle	Zangaligulab	S	Leaves, flowers	Decoction	16	0.11		Leaves are boiled in water and used as memory stimulants, antispasmodics, and to improve digestion. Flowers are boiled and applied to treat foul ulcers and wounds.	R
	Rubusfruticosus L.	Karwara	S	Fruits	Crude form	21	0.15		Fresh fruits are used as a cooling agent.	R
	Rubus ulmifolius Schott	Karwara	S	Leaves, fruits	Powder, decoction	14	0.1		Fresh leaves are boiled and used as blood purifiers and refrigerants. It is also used to treat dysentery and diarrhea.	R
	Prunus persica L. Batsch.	Shaltalo	T	Leaves, fruits	Powder, juice	24	0.17		The powder is mixed with honey and used to treat stomach and liver disorders. Fresh fruits and a decoction of leaves are used to treat diabetes.	V
45	Rutaceae							33.6
	Zanthoxylum armatum DC.	Dambara	T	Fruits, seeds	Crude form, powder	47	0.34		Fruits and seeds are powdered and used as cooling agents, as carminatives, stimulants, and antidiuretics.	V
46	Salicaceae							9.3
	Salix denticulata var. hazarica (R. Parker) Ali	Betawla	S	Bark	Decoction	13	0.09		Decoction of bark is used as a febrifuge, astringent, and anthelmintic. Also used to treat fever.	E
47	Sapindaceae							7.9
	Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq.	Ghuraski	S	Leaves	Poultice	11	0.08		Warm leaves are kept on the wound to relive pain.	R
48	Saxifragaceae							28.6
	Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.	Kakolpanra	H	Rhizome	Decoction	23	0.16		Rhizome is boiled in water and used to treat urinary disorders, stopping bleeding from wounds and dissolving kidney stones.	R
	Bergenia stracheyi (H. & T.) Engl.	Kakolpanra	H	Rhizome	Powder	17	0.12		Rhizome is powdered, mixed with milk and used for the treatment of kidney stones and diabetes. It is also a refrigerant.	R
49	Simaroubaceae							12.9
	Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle	Shandai	T	Leaves, flower	Juice	18	0.13		Bark juice is mixed with milk to treat dysentery and diarrhea.	V
50	Solanaceae							38.6
	Solanum nigrum L.	Kachmachu	H	Leaves, fruits	Juice, poultice	21	0.15		Used to treat diarrhea, eye-troubles, and fever. The ripe fruits are used in piles.	R
	Solanum surattense Burm. f.	Maraghonay	H	Whole plant	Decoction, powder	33	0.24		Dried fruit powder is taken with water to treat diabetes. Leaves are boiled in water and taken before meals to treat kidney stones. Decoction of the whole plant is used as an expectorant, diuretic, anti-asthmatic, and carminative.	V
51	Thymelaeaceae							12.9
	Daphne mucronata Royle	Leghunai	S	Whole plant	Decoction	18	0.13		Roots are crushed, boiled and used to treat abdominal pain, swellings, wounds, and gastrointestinal irritation.	V
52	Trilliaceae							38.6
	Trillium govanianum Wall. ex Royle.	Matarjarai	H	Rhizome	Powder	54	0.39		The powder is mixed with wheat flour, sugar, and cooked in desi ghee to make halwa and is used to treat menstrual disorders, infertility, and improve aphrodisiac properties.	E
53	Ulmaceae							9.3
	Celtis caucasica Willd.	Taghaga	T	Bark	Decoction	13	0.09		Boiled in water and used as a cooling agent.	V
54	Valerianaceae							35
	Valeriana jatamansi Jones.	Mashkibhala	H	Rhizome	Powder, decoction	49	0.35		The powder of rhizome is mixed with a little sugar and used as a carminative and antispasmodic, while the decoction is used to treat dysentery and cholera.	V
55	Verbenaceae							7.1
	Verbena officinalis L.	Shomakai	H	Whole plant	Decoction	10	0.07		Boiled in water with sugar and used before meals to treat fever.	R
56	Violaceae							42.9
	Viola canescens Wall. Ex Roxber	Toorapanra	H	Whole plant	Decoction	60	0.43		Boiled in water or taken with tea to treat fever, cough, asthma and coolness of the body.	I
57	Vitaceae							26.4
	Vitis vinifera L.	Kwar	C	Whole plant	Poultice, decoction	37	0.26		The leaves are used to treat mouth sores. Roots are boiled in water and used to induce milk secretion in nursing mothers. The fruits are diuretic, tonic. Also used to treat smallpox.	V

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