Abstract This article seeks to highlight the key role of the blue economy in fostering regional integration of Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) based on the 2030 Agenda. By proposing a “beyond the boxes” approach, SDG 14 is not the only driver that stands out. Hence, we propose a regionalism beyond the state-centric and land borders, which will require reflecting on and rethinking theories, policies, and practices related to the foundations of regional integration, IR, and the 2030 Agenda itself. The methodology combines UN reports and data from ECLAC, WRI, FAO, UNEP-WCMC, UNESCO-MAB, WWF, UN-DESA, and NOAA.

Resumo Dinâmicas distintas podem ser observadas entre os mercados de energias renováveis e fósseis, sugerindo a necessidade de abordagens diversas no campo teórico e prático da segurança energética. Entretanto, no contexto da atual transição energética, observa-se uma concentração geográfica das cadeias produtivas dos novos equipamentos geradores de energias limpas, o que cria novas dependências por insumos e parceiros comerciais. Consequentemente, a segurança energética é afetada pela sua relação com insumos não-energéticos, como minerais críticos. Neste artigo, empreende-se uma pesquisa documental para posterior análise quantitativa dos dados da United States Geological Survey (USGS). Após a apresentação da discussão teórica acerca da segurança energética, da transição energética e de minerais críticos, analisamos documentos dos setores energético e mineral redigidos no recorte temporal de 2000 a 2020. Conclui-se que a transição em direção a matrizes energéticas menos poluentes pode resultar na criação de novas dependências e que o acesso a recursos não energéticos é condicionante para o êxito do processo de transição energética.

Abstract Different dynamics can be observed between the renewable and fossil energy markets, suggesting the need for different approaches in the theoretical and practical field of energy security. However, in the context of the current energy transition, there is a geographic concentration of production chains of new clean energy-generating equipment, which creates new dependencies for inputs and commercial partners. Consequently, energy security is affected by the relationship with non-fuel inputs such as critical minerals. In this work, we seek to engage in documentary research followed by a quantitative analysis of data provided by the United States Geological Survey. After the presentation of the theoretical discussion about energy security, energy transition and critical minerals, we analyse documents from the energy and mineral sectors written in the period from 2000 to 2020. It is posited that the transition towards less polluting energy matrices can result in the creation of new dependencies and that access to non-fuel resources is a condition for the success of the energy transition.

Resumen Se observan dinámicas diferentes entre los mercados de energías renovables y fósiles, lo que sugiere la necesidad de adoptar enfoques diferentes en el ámbito teórico y práctico de la seguridad energética. Sin embargo, en el contexto de la actual transición energética, existe una concentración geográfica de las cadenas de producción de nuevos equipamientos de generación de energía limpia, lo que crea nuevas dependencias de insumos y socios comerciales. En consecuencia, la seguridad energética se ve afectada por la relación con los insumos no energéticos, como los minerales críticos. En este trabajo se realiza una investigación documental para un posterior análisis cuantitativo de los datos obtenidos. Tras la presentación de la discusión teórica sobre la seguridad energética, la transición energética y los minerales críticos, se analizan documentos de los sectores de la energía y los minerales redactados en el período comprendido entre 2000 y 2020. Se plantea que la transición hacia matrices energéticas menos contaminantes puede dar lugar a la creación de nuevas dependencias y que el acceso a recursos no energéticos es una condición para el éxito de la transición energética.

Resumo Este artigo discute o papel do Brasil na governança climática, comparando-o metodológica e metaforicamente, às jogadas das peças de xadrez, com base em documentos nacionais e regionais oficiais, compromissos e dados. Ao contrário de outros estudos de RI, nossa proposta sugere diferentes comportamentos em diferentes níveis de análise para o mesmo país. Nacionalmente, o país desempenhou o papel de peão. Regionalmente, não há comportamento unitário: na cooperação internacional (no caso da precificação de carbono), ele se move como uma rainha; na integração regional (no caso da integração energética), como um rei. O cenário atual suscita dúvidas sobre esses papéis, sugerindo que o Brasil tem apresentado recentemente um comportamento cada vez mais moderado e conservador.

Abstract This paper discusses Brazil’s role in climate governance, methodologically and metaphorically comparing it to chess pieces moves, based on national and regional official documents, commitments and data. Unlike other IR studies, our proposal suggests different behaviours at different levels of analysis for the same country. Nationally, the country played the role of pawn. Regionally, there is no unitary behaviour: in international cooperation (carbon pricing case), it moves like a queen; in the regional integration process (energy integration case), like a king. The current scenario raises doubts about these roles, suggesting that Brazil has been presenting an increasingly moderate and conservative behaviour in the past years.

Abstract TThe growing relevance of the seas and the ocean in terms of economic, geopolitical and governance is reflected in the increase and diversification of scientific publications on the subject, as well as in the global agenda. Within the United Nations (UN) scope, the 2030 Agenda (2016-2030), its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and the recent Decade of Ocean Science for the Sustainable Development (2021-2030) highlight the international effort in favor of knowledge, preservation, and sustainable exploitation of these resources. However, there is a vast and recent economic literature on the subject, which is confused and often contradictory, negatively affecting the international debate and policymaking. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to dot the I’s and cross the T’s on this literature, which frequently uses a wide nuance of terms as synonyms, such as blue economy, marine economy, maritime economics, ocean economy, economy of the sea, blue growth, coastal economy, and maritime cluster. Thus, it is necessary to explain the differences between these “fifty shades of blue” economy concepts, specifically because of the relevance of the topic in the Decade of Ocean Science, which often seems limited and misunderstood. To this end, the article performs a bibliometric approach based on 1,351 publications from Scopus and WoS databases, covering the 1959-2020 period, followed by a systematic review. We use the Bibliometrix package in RStudio (v. 3.6.3) to investigate metadata and Biblioshiny as a tool for data analysis. Among our main results, stand out: (i) the progress of the discussion over time; (ii) the expansion of the themes and actors involved in this agenda; and (iii) the main issues and trend topics associated with the different concepts. Since 2012, blue economy has been the most used concept due to the Rio+20 UN Conference on Sustainable Development. Given the current situation of the COVID-19 pandemic, understanding the relevance of the blue economy is an urgent step to promote anti-cyclical economic policies and to address the UN Ocean Decade, particularly in the Global South.

RESUMEN El artículo argumenta que la promoción de la seguridad energética debe ir más allá del enfoque nacional y, en consecuencia, considerar uno regional. El estudio de caso considera el Mercosur y la UNASUR, cubriendo el período 2015-2050. La metodología se basa en el modelado y la creación de escenarios de energía utilizando el Open Source Energy Modelling System - South America Model Base (OSeMOSYS-SAMBA), un modelo de planificación para la expansión de los sistemas de energía a largo plazo. El ejercicio de modelado ratifica el argumento de que una mayor integración eléctrica en el Mercosur (y en América del Sur en general) promueve la reducción en la necesidad de aumentar la capacidad instalada, así como menores impactos geográficos y socio ambientales. CLASIFICACIÓN JEL: C6, N76, O13, Q4.

ABSTRACT This paper argues that furthering energy security should move beyond a national approach and consequently consider a regional one. The case study considers Mercosur and UNASUR, covering the period between 2015-2050. The methodology is based on energy modeling and scenarization using the Open Source Energy Modelling System - South America Model Base (OSeMOSYS-SAMBA), a model of planning for the expansion of long-term energy systems. The modeling exercise supports the argument that greater electricity integration in Mercosur (and in South America as a whole) promotes a reduction in the need to increase installed capacity, as well as lower geographic and socio-environmental impacts. JEL Codes: C6, N76, O13, Q4.