Abstract The article examines the constitution of cardiology as a medical specialty in Brazil in the 1930s and 1940s. In the context of the implementation of the social protection system by the Getúlio Vargas administration, cardiovascular diseases gained visibility in the debate on the health and productivity of urban workers. Some physicians argued that the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of these diseases required specialized knowledge and practices, such as electrocardiography. The dissemination of this technology in Brazil benefited from exchanges with US doctors, intensified at the time by the Good Neighbor Policy. We argue that the establishment of cardiology as a specialty resulted from the association between demands for the reproduction of the workforce, socio-professional interests in the medical field, and transnational networks of inter-American scientific cooperation.

Resumo O artigo examina a constituição da cardiologia como especialidade médica no Brasil nas décadas de 1930 e 1940. No contexto de implementação do sistema de proteção social pelo governo de Getúlio Vargas, as doenças cardiovasculares ganharam visibilidade no debate sobre a saúde e a produtividade dos trabalhadores urbanos. Alguns médicos defenderam que o diagnóstico, o tratamento e a prevenção dessas enfermidades requeriam conhecimentos e práticas especializados, como a eletrocardiografia. A disseminação dessa tecnologia no Brasil se beneficiou dos intercâmbios com médicos estadunidenses, intensificados na época pela Política da Boa Vizinhança. Argumentamos que o estabelecimento da cardiologia como especialidade resultou da associação entre demandas para a reprodução da força de trabalho, interesses socioprofissionais no campo médico e redes transnacionais de cooperação científica interamericana.

It is well documented that Chagas disease (CD) can pose a public health problem to countries. As one of the World Health Organization Neglected Tropical Diseases undoubtedly calls for comprehensive healthcare, transcending a restricted biomedical approach. After more than a century since their discovery, in 1909, people affected by CD are still frequently marginalised and/or neglected. The aim of this article is to tell the story of their activism, highlighting key historical experiences and successful initiatives, from 1909 to 2019. The first association was created in 1987, in the city of Recife, Brazil. So far, thirty associations have been reported on five continents. They were created as independent non-profit civil society organisations and run democratically by affected people. Among the common associations’ objectives, we notably find: increase the visibility of the affected; make their voice heard; build bridges between patients, health system professionals, public health officials, policy makers and the academic and scientific communities. The International Federation of Associations of People Affected by CD - FINDECHAGAS, created in 2010 with the input of the Americas, Europe and the Western Pacific, counts as one of the main responses to the globalisation of CD. Despite all the obstacles and difficulties encountered, the Federation has thrived, grown, and matured. As a result of this mobilisation along with the support of many national and international partners, in May 2019 the 72nd World Health Assembly decided to establish World Chagas Disease Day, on 14 April. The associative movement has increased the understanding of the challenges related to the disease and breaks the silence around Chagas disease, improving surveillance, and sustaining engagement towards the United Nations 2030 agenda.

Approaching from the perspective of the history and social studies of science, the article analyses some aspects of the early history of Chagas disease, from its discovery through initial research. It is our goal to show that historians of science can explore this topic as a way not only of remembering and narrating past events but also of examining the processes through which science is produced. To this end, we present five basic precepts that have guided historical and sociological studies of “science in action”: science as a collective endeavor, as a social activity, as a set of practices, as a process that involves controversies, and as a formative process. By examining the topic in the light of these five points, we demonstrate how the history of this successful research tradition can lead us to broader reflections about the complex dynamics interweaving science and society. disease produced end action action” endeavor activity practices controversies points society

Resumo Este artigo analisa o programa de intercâmbio educacional firmado, em 1938, entre o Instituto Brasil-Estados Unidos (IBEU) e a Universidade de Michigan. A proposta partiu do instituto binacional recém fundado no Rio de Janeiro e veio ao encontro dos interesses daquela universidade em atrair ao meio-oeste dos EUA os estudantes latino-americanos que buscavam o país estimulados pela política da boa vizinhança do governo Roosevelt. Focalizando o percurso e a rede de atores, interesses e práticas que conformaram o Brazilian Fellowship Program, argumenta-se que esse é um caso exemplar das dinâmicas concretas e complexas que conformaram os circuitos da boa vizinhança e da diplomacia cultural interamericana durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial. Utiliza-se como fontes, preferencialmente, a documentação sob a guarda da Universidade de Michigan. O período analisado se estende de 1938, quando o programa foi formulado, até 1943, quando as relações interamericanas deixaram de ser o carro-chefe da diplomacia cultural e da política externa estadunidense, tendo em vista as expectativas para o pós-guerra. Ao focalizar essa experiência particular de cooperação educacional, em uma fase decisiva na construção da hegemonia global dos EUA, busca-se contribuir para os debates historiográficos sobre a circulação transnacional de saberes, pessoas e práticas enquanto processo marcado por encontros mas também por tensões e assimetrias.

Abstract The article analyzes the educational exchange agreement signed in 1938 by the University of Michigan and the Instituto Brasil-Estados Unidos (IBEU), a newly founded bi-national institute in Rio de Janeiro. The IBEU’s proposed Brazilian Fellowship Program meshed well with the university’s interest in drawing Latin American students to the U.S. Midwest as the Roosevelt administration implemented its Good Neighbor Policy. In exploring the pathways and network of actors, interests, and practices that developed over the course of the program, we argue that this case constitutes a fine example of the concrete, complex dynamics that shaped the circuits of the Good Neighbor Policy and inter-American cultural diplomacy during World War II. Our primary source was formed of records held in the custody of the University of Michigan. The period of analysis runs from 1938, when the program was drafted, through 1943, when U.S. cultural diplomacy and foreign policy shifted their focus away from inter-American relations in light of expectations concerning the post-war period. By examining this specific experience in educational cooperation during a decisive phase in the construction of U.S. global hegemony, we hope to contribute to the historiographic discussion about the transnational circulation of knowledge, people, and practices as a process characterized by moments of encounter but also by tensions and asymmetries.

Resumo O objetivo deste artigo é analisar a atuação de Emmanuel Dias (1908-1962), pesquisador do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC) e diretor do Centro de Estudos e Profilaxia da Moléstia de Chagas (posto do IOC criado em 1943 na cidade de Bambuí, Minas Gerais), como ator decisivo no processo de reconhecimento da doença de Chagas como problema de saúde pública no Brasil e no continente americano. Busca-se evidenciar que a conquista deste reconhecimento, que teve como marco fundamental a realização da primeira campanha de combate à enfermidade no Brasil em 1950, foi viabilizada pela intensa mobilização política de Dias junto a diversos grupos sociais, como médicos, políticos e moradores das áreas rurais, profissionais dos serviços públicos de saúde, governos e associações internacionais. Tal mobilização, ao longo das décadas de 1940 e 1950, num contexto histórico marcado por intensos debates sobre as relações entre saúde e desenvolvimento, levou à construção de uma rede de apoios decisiva para que a doença, caracterizada como cardiopatia crônica a ameaçar a produtividade do trabalhador rural, fosse considerada um problema médico-social a merecer ações e programas de saúde pública voltados para seu controle.

Abstract The scope of this article is to analyze the trajectory of Emmanuel Dias (1908-1962), a researcher at the Oswaldo Cruz Institute (OCI) and director of the Center for Studies and Prophylaxis of Chagas Disease (OCI outpost established in 1943 in the city of Bambuí, Minas Gerais), as a key actor in the acknowledgement of Chagas disease as a public health problem in Brazil and the Americas. It seeks to show that the conquest of this acknowledgement, the cornerstone of which was the staging of the first campaign to combat the disease in Brazil in 1950, was made possible by the intense political mobilization of Dias together with the various social groups, such as physicians, politicians and residents of rural areas, public health officials, governments and international organizations. This mobilization occurred during the 1940s and 1950s in a historical context marked by intense debate about the relationship between health and development and helped to construct a network of alliances that was critical for the recognition of Chagas disease as a chronic cardiopathy, which threatened the productivity of rural workers and represented a medical and social problem that merited public health actions and programs geared to get it under control.

Resumo O objetivo deste artigo é analisar a atuação de Emmanuel Dias (1908-1962), pesquisador do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC) e diretor do Centro de Estudos e Profilaxia da Moléstia de Chagas (posto do IOC criado em 1943 na cidade de Bambuí, Minas Gerais), como ator decisivo no processo de reconhecimento da doença de Chagas como problema de saúde pública no Brasil e no continente americano. Busca-se evidenciar que a conquista deste reconhecimento, que teve como marco fundamental a realização da primeira campanha de combate à enfermidade no Brasil em 1950, foi viabilizada pela intensa mobilização política de Dias junto a diversos grupos sociais, como médicos, políticos e moradores das áreas rurais, profissionais dos serviços públicos de saúde, governos e associações internacionais. Tal mobilização, ao longo das décadas de 1940 e 1950, num contexto histórico marcado por intensos debates sobre as relações entre saúde e desenvolvimento, levou à construção de uma rede de apoios decisiva para que a doença, caracterizada como cardiopatia crônica a ameaçar a produtividade do trabalhador rural, fosse considerada um problema médico-social a merecer ações e programas de saúde pública voltados para seu controle.

Abstract The scope of this article is to analyze the trajectory of Emmanuel Dias (1908-1962), a researcher at the Oswaldo Cruz Institute (OCI) and director of the Center for Studies and Prophylaxis of Chagas Disease (OCI outpost established in 1943 in the city of Bambuí, Minas Gerais), as a key actor in the acknowledgement of Chagas disease as a public health problem in Brazil and the Americas. It seeks to show that the conquest of this acknowledgement, the cornerstone of which was the staging of the first campaign to combat the disease in Brazil in 1950, was made possible by the intense political mobilization of Dias together with the various social groups, such as physicians, politicians and residents of rural areas, public health officials, governments and international organizations. This mobilization occurred during the 1940s and 1950s in a historical context marked by intense debate about the relationship between health and development and helped to construct a network of alliances that was critical for the recognition of Chagas disease as a chronic cardiopathy, which threatened the productivity of rural workers and represented a medical and social problem that merited public health actions and programs geared to get it under control.

Este artículo realiza un análisis de la construcción de las patologías nacionales en Brasil y Argentina entre la primera y la cuarta década del siglo XX. Se considera el debate científico, social y político sobre el mal de Chagas y el bocio, así como las relaciones entre ese debate y la producción colectiva de la nacionalidad brasileña y argentina. En tal sentido, el "descubrimiento" de las patologías del interior significó en Brasil la generación de un proyecto sanitarista de proyección nacional, mientras que en Argentina tal situación se dio moderadamente, en la medida que la preocupación central estaba en las enfermedades consideradas producto de la "civilización", como responsabilidad de la inmigración extranjera.

Analisa o debate sobre a doença de Chagas, descoberta em 1909, em sua relação com a campanha pelo saneamento rural do Brasil (1916-1920). Argumenta que as bandeiras desse movimento estiveram diretamente referidas à definição e à legitimação dessa enfermidade como fato científico e problema social. A 'nova moléstia tropical', apresentada como emblema das endemia rurais, foi caracterizada como 'doença do Brasil', símbolo de um 'país doente'. A campanha sanitarista foi, por sua vez, elemento decisivo da polêmica em torno da doença de 1919 a 1923. Trata-se, portanto, de um caso exemplar de como as teorias da medicina tropical europeia foram utilizadas pelos cientistas brasileiros para produzir conhecimentos originais nesse campo, a partir de sentidos específicos ao contexto nacional do período.

The article explores the relation between the debate on Chagas' disease, discovered in 1909, and Brazil's 1916-1920 rural sanitation campaign. It argues that the political planks of the sanitary movement were intimately bound up with the definition and legitimization of this illness as a scientific fact and social issue. Presented as emblematic of rural endemic disease, this 'new tropical ailment' was characterized as 'the disease of Brazil', symbol of a 'sickly country'. The sanitary campaign was in turn a decisive element of the 1919-1923 polemic surrounding the disease. This is an exemplary case of how Brazilian scientists used theories from European tropical medicine to produce original knowledge in the field, basing themselves on meanings specific to the national context of their day.

Analisa o contexto científico e social da descoberta, por Carlos Chagas, em 1908/1909, da doença que leva seu nome, bem como do Trypanosoma cruzi, parasito que causa esta enfermidade. Examina sua inserção no debate internacional da medicina tropical - especialmente com pesquisadores da escola alemã de protozoologia - e nas discussões sobre a modernização brasileira. A descoberta foi decisiva ao projeto de ciência que Oswaldo Cruz pretendida erigir no Instituto de Manguinhos. Foi enaltecida como símbolo da capacidade da ciência nacional em produzir conhecimentos afinados com a agenda científica internacional e, ao mesmo tempo, relacionados aos problemas específicos do Brasil.

This article analyzes the discovery of Chagas disease and the parasite that causes it (Trypanosoma cruzi) by Carlos Chagas in 1908/1909, with a special focus on the scientific and social context in which this occurred. Its inclusion in the international debate on European tropical medicine - especially with researchers from the German school of protozoology - and its connection with discussions on the modernization of the recently established Brazilian Republic are also examined. The discovery of Chagas disease became a decisive aspect in the scientific project that Oswaldo Cruz sought to establish at the institute that bears his name. It was extolled as a symbol of Brazil's scientific ability to produce knowledge in line with the international scientific agenda, while simultaneously being attuned to the specific problems of the country.

Since the early studies on the disease that takes his name, Carlos Chagas stated that the new trypanosomiasis, discovered by him in 1909, represented an important public health problem in Brazil for hampering the development and productiveness of rural populations. Chagas disease became the most important item of the research agenda of Oswaldo Cruz Institute. It was defined as a scientific-medical object as well as a social object, representing a certain perspective over the Brazilian nation and the role of science in leading it towards "progress" in the early years of the republican modernization. This process -that expresses the social dimension of the production of scientific facts- is analysed in this paper using the article published in the newspaper O Paiz under the title "Carlos Chagas Disease. A memorable session at the National Academy of Medicine", in October 31st, 1910, in which the physician Ismael da Rocha describes and comments Chagas' first public conference to present the main aspects of the knowledge about the new disease.

Desde los primeros estudios sobre la enfermedad que lleva su nombre, Carlos Chagas afirmó que la nueva tripanosomiasis, descubierta por él en 1909, representaba un importante problema de salud pública para Brasil, al perjudicar el desarrollo y la productividad de las poblaciones rurales. Constituyendo la gran vidriera de la agenda de investigaciones del Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, el mal de Chagas fue definido como objeto médico-científico y también como objeto social, representando una cierta perspectiva sobre la nación brasileña y el papel de la ciencia de conducirla al "progreso", en los primeros años de la modernización republicana. Este proceso -que expresa la dimensión social de los hechos científicos- se analiza aquí a partir de un artículo publicado en el diario O Paiz, el 31 de octubre de 1910, bajo el título "A Doença de Carlos Chagas. Uma sessão memorável na Academia Nacional de Medicina", en el cual el médico Ismael da Rocha describe y comenta la primera conferencia pública de Chagas, en la que presentó los principales conocimientos sobre la nueva enfermedad.

Since the early studies on the disease that takes his name, Carlos Chagas stated that the new trypanosomiasis, discovered by him in 1909, represented an important public health problem in Brazil for hampering the development and productiveness of rural populations. Chagas disease became the most important item of the research agenda of Oswaldo Cruz Institute. It was defined as a scientific-medical object as well as a social object, representing a certain perspective over the Brazilian nation and the role of science in leading it towards "progress" in the early years of the republican modernization. This process -that expresses the social dimension of the production of scientific facts- is analysed in this paper using the article published in the newspaper O Paiz under the title "Carlos Chagas Disease. A memorable session at the National Academy of Medicine", in October 31st, 1910, in which the physician Ismael da Rocha describes and comments Chagas' first public conference to present the main aspects of the knowledge about the new disease.

Desde los primeros estudios sobre la enfermedad que lleva su nombre, Carlos Chagas afirmó que la nueva tripanosomiasis, descubierta por él en 1909, representaba un importante problema de salud pública para Brasil, al perjudicar el desarrollo y la productividad de las poblaciones rurales. Constituyendo la gran vidriera de la agenda de investigaciones del Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, el mal de Chagas fue definido como objeto médico-científico y también como objeto social, representando una cierta perspectiva sobre la nación brasileña y el papel de la ciencia de conducirla al "progreso", en los primeros años de la modernización republicana. Este proceso -que expresa la dimensión social de los hechos científicos- se analiza aquí a partir de un artículo publicado en el diario O Paiz, el 31 de octubre de 1910, bajo el título "A Doença de Carlos Chagas. Uma sessão memorável na Academia Nacional de Medicina", en el cual el médico Ismael da Rocha describe y comenta la primera conferencia pública de Chagas, en la que presentó los principales conocimientos sobre la nueva enfermedad.

Analisa o processo histórico de construção da doença de Chagas, descoberta em 1909, como entidade médica específica e problema de saúde pública no Brasil, focalizando a atuação de um posto de pesquisa do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, criado em 1943, no interior de Minas Gerais. Sugere que o trabalho realizado neste posto proporcionou um consenso básico para que a doença alcançasse legitimidade científica e social, e que os significados atribuídos à doença neste processo estiveram diretamente referidos aos debates sobre as relações entre ciência, saúde e desenvolvimento, no contexto da Segunda Guerra Mundial.

The article analyzes the historical process by which Chagas disease, discovered in 1909, has been constructed as a specific medical entity and a public health issue in Brazil. Focusing on the role played by an Oswaldo Cruz Institute research post created in rural Minas Gerais in 1943, it proposes that the work carried out at this post was responsible for reaching a basic consensus that allowed the disease to attain scientific and social legitimacy. The meanings assigned to Chagas disease during this process were directly related to debates about the connections between science, health and development within the context of the World War II.

Le texte analyse le processus historique de construction de la maladie de Chagas, découverte en 1909, en tant qu'entité médicale spécifique et problème de la santé publique au Brésil, en étudiant l'action d'un poste de recherche de l'Instituto Oswaldo Cruz créé en 1943 à l'intérieur de Minas Gerais. On suggère que les recherches menées par cette équipe là ont établi des assises pour que cette maladie ait obtenue légitimité scientifique et sociale, et que ce processus s'est reporté aux signifiés atribués, dans le contexte de la II Guerre mondiale, aux liens entre la science, la santé et du développement.

The objective of this study is to reflect on the institutionalization of biotechnology in Brazil, relating it to the historical and institutional context marked by the national science and technology policy implemented since the 1970s. We focus on the configuration of biotechnology at the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ) to exemplify developing countries' difficulty in disseminating an innovation model based on networks originally established in developed countries. The research shows that the lag between scientific capability and technological development at FIOCRUZ resulted from the institutional dynamic related to its process of reconstruction beginning in 1975, governed by both S&T policy and health policy for the production of immunobiological products in the country during that period.

Le but de ce travail est de réfléchir à l'institutionnalisation de la biotechnologie au Brésil, dans le cadre historico-institutionnel marqué par la politique nationale de science et technologie mise en place dans les années 70. On est parti des aspects de la biotechnologie à la Fondation Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ) en tant qu'exemple des difficultés de diffusion, dans les pays en voie de développement, du modèle d'innovation basé sur des réseaux, constitué à l'origine dans les pays développés. Ce travail montre que le décalage entre la formation scientifique et le développement technologique existant à la FIOCRUZ résulte de la dynamique institutionnelle liée à son processus de révision depuis 1975, régi aussi bien par la politique de science et technologie de l'époque que par la politique de santé concernant la production d'éléments immunobiologiques dans le pays.

O objetivo do artigo é analisar dois períodos da trajetória de consolidação e legitimação científica e social da tripanossomíase americana ou doença de Chagas, descoberta em 1909 no interior de Minas Gerais por Carlos Chagas, pesquisador do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. Primeiramente, a fase das pesquisas em Lassance, durante a vida de Chagas, quando foram formulados os enunciados básicos sobre a doença e, em seguida, a atuação, nas décadas de 1940 e 1950, do grupo de pesquisadores reunidos no Centro de Estudos e Profilaxia da Moléstia de Chagas na cidade mineira de Bambuí. Consideramos que a descoberta da tripanossomíase americana, no sentido da validação dos conhecimentos que tornaram a doença um objeto estabelecido e aceito, deu-se mediante um processo longo que ultrapassou não somente o episódio de identificação da nova doença, mas inclusive o período em que, em Lassance, as pesquisas foram ampliadas por Chagas e seus colaboradores. Nossa hipótese é a de que o trabalho desenvolvido em Bambuí foi responsável por garantir um acordo básico em torno da especificidade patológica e da relevância social da doença, a partir do qual esta tornou-se efetivamente reconhecida tanto como fato científico estabelecido quanto como problema de saúde pública.

This article aims at studying two moments in the course of social and scientific consolidation and legitimation of American trypanosomiasis, discovered in the interior of the state of Minas Gerais in 1909 by Carlos Chagas, Oswaldo Cruz Institute researcher. Analysis, therefore, will focus first on Lassance's research, a phase that occurred still during Chagas' lifetime and that presided over the basic definitions of this tropical disease. Focus then will shift onto the action of the group of researchers brought together at the Centro de Estudos e Profilaxia da Moléstia de Chagas in the Minas Gerais town of Bambuí, during the '40s and '50s. In our view the discovery of American trypanosomiasis, insofar as this disease became an accepted and established object, occurred over a long process that transcended not just the episode of its discovery, but also that of Lassance's research, as expanded on by Chagas and his associates. Our hypothesis is that work carried out at Bambuí was responsible for ensuring a fundamental agreement on this disease's pathological specificity and its social relevance, which in turn led to the general acknowledgment of the illness both as an established scientific fact and as a public health problem.